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THE        AU^Oi^l^.^ 
PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADVERTISING 
IN  THEORY  AND 
PRACTICE 

A  SIMPLE  EXPOSITION  OF 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY 

IN  THEIR  RELATION  TO 

SUCCESSFUL  ADVERTISING 

By 

WALTER  DILL  SCOTT,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Applied  Psychology  and  Director  of  the  Psychological  Laboratory, 
Northwestern  University;  President  of  the  Scott  Company,  Associate 
Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Salesmanship  Research,  Carnegie  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  Former  President  of  the  National 
Association  of  Advertising  Teachers,  Colonel,  U.S.R.; 

Author  of 

"  The  Psychology  of  Public  Speaking," 

*'  Increasing  Human  EflSciency  in  Business," 

"  Influencing  Men  in  Business." 


BOSTON 

SMALL,  MAYNARD  &  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 


Copyright,  1902-1903 

By  WALTER  DILL  SCOTT 

Copyright,  1908,  1910,  1921 

By  small,  MAYNARD  &  COMPANY 

(incorporated)        O^ 


«^A   X 


y^<jj 


\ 


THE  AUTHOR  RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATES  THIS  VOLUME  TO  THAT 
INCREASING  NUMBER  OF  AMERICAN  BUSINESS  MEN  WHO 
SUCCESSFULLY  APPLY  SCIENCE  WHERE  THEIR  PREDECESSORS 
WERE  CONFINED  TO  CuSTOM. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I.    Introduction 1 

II.    Perception 6 

III.  Apperception 19 

IV.  Illusions  of  Perception  . 31 

V.     Illusions  of  Apperception 41 

VI.     Personal  Differences  in  Mental  Imagery 56 

VII.     Practical  Application  of  Mental  Imagery 67 

VIII.     Association  of  Ideas 86 

IX.     Fusion 96 

X.    Memory Ill 

XI.     The  Feelings  and  the  Emotions 12^ 

XII.     Appeals  to  the  Customer's  Sympathy 137 

XIII.  Human  Instincts  . 149 

XIV.  Suggestion 173 

XV.     The  Will :  an  Analysis 186 

XVI.     The  Will :  Variety  in  Action 197 

XVII.     Habit .215 

XVIII.     The  Habit  of  Reading  Advertisements 222 

XIX.     The  Direct  Command .233 

XX.  The  Psychological  Value  of  the  Return  Coupon  .     .     .  247 

XXI.     Attention 260 

XXII.  Attention  Value  of  Small  and  of  Large  Spaces  ...  283 

XXIII.  The  Mortality  Rate  of  Advertisers 302' 

XXIV.  The   Value  of  Advertising   Space  Next  to  Reading 

Matter 311 

XXV.     Psychological  Experiment 324 

XXVI.     The  Psychology  of  Food  Advertising 335 

XXVII.     The  Laws  of  Progressive  Thinking 358 

XXVIII.  The  Unconscious  Influence  in  Street  Railway  Adver- 
tising        366 

XXIX.  The  Questionnaire  Method  in  Advertising     ....  375 

XXX.     The  Social  Service  of  Advertising     . ' 395 

XXXI.     Bibliography 409 

V 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS 

PAGE 

Flame  Proof  Co.— F.  P.  C.  Wax 15,  17 

Whitman's  Chocolates 26,  28 

Illusions  of  Length 32,  33,  35,  36,  367 

Illusions  of  Size 34,  37 

Illusions  of  Direction 36 

Munsing  and  Oneita  Underwear 42 

Portable  Houses  and  Fountain  Pens 44 

Human  Brain 46 

Rabbit-Duck  Head 47 

Ambiguous  Figures 48,  49,  50,  51 

Emerson  Incubator  Co - 70 

Vose  &  Sons  Camera  Co.    .    .  * 71 

Carola  Inner-Player 72 

Blasius  Piano 73 

Packard  Piano 74 

Irrelevant  Food  Advertisements 75,  76 

Crawford  Shoe 78 

Crossett  Shoe    . 79 

Omega  Oil 81,  82,  83 

Dr.  Sleight's  Fat  Reducing  Tablets 104 

Insexdie 105 

Swan  Fountain  Pen 105 

Petoskey  Rug  Mfg.  and  Carpet  Co.,  Ltd. 106 

Wm.  M.  Walton's  Cigars 107 

Racycle 107 

Great  Western  Cereal  Co 108 

Quaker  Oats 109 

Vitalized  Phosphites 115 

Pompeian  Mfg.  Co 118 

Gold  Dust 119 

Rough  on  Rats 120 

Buster  Brown  Stocking  Co 121 

Bisected    Lines 127 


viii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Square  and  Rectangle 130 

J.  W.  Butler  Paper  Co 134 

Thos.  Cook  &. Son 138,140 

Hall  Chemical  Co 141 

Howard  Obesity  Ointment 142 

Dr.  Bull's  Cough  Syrup 145 

Conklin  Pen  Co 44,  146 

Pelman  School  of  Memory  Training 147 

Karo  Com  Syrup 154 

American  Reserve  Bond  Co 160 

Stevens  Rifles 161 

Golden  Fleece  Yams 162 

Cream  of  Wheat 116,  165 

Gage  Brothers  &  Co. — Millinery 167 

Regal  Shoe 168 

"What  did  the  Woggle  Bug  say?" 172 

Lucas  Tinted  Gloss  Paint 179 

Westerfeld's  Superior  Pound  Cakes 180 

Kerr's    Studios 180 

Yucatan  Gum 181 

Arrow  Collars 182 

Calox.— Oxygen  Tooth  Powder 183 

Hand   Sapolio 183 

"Say  it  with  Flowers" 184 

Triscuit. — Natural  Food  Co 190 

Holbrook's  Sauce 191 

Jap-a-lac 178,  192 

"Modern  Eloquence" 202 

Cook's  Flaked  Rice 205 

American  Radiator  Co 212 

Postum   Cereal 213 

Wilson's  Outside  Venetians 227 

Chicago  College  of  Advertising 228 

George  Mills  Rogers. — Real  Estate 229 

Advertising   Schools 239 

Retum  Coupons 248,  249,  250,  251,  255 

Ballot  Form  of  Return  Coupon 257 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS  ix 

PAGE 

Burlington  Route 264 

Dr.   Slocum's  Remedies 265 

Ralston  Purina  Cereals 270 

Murphy   Varnish   Co 271 

American  Lead  Pencil  Co 228,  274 

The  Press  Co.,  Meriden,  Conn 276 

Franklin  Mills  Flour 278 

Prudential  Insurance  Co 280 

Packer's  Tar  Soap 289,  290 

Pears'  Soap 203,  298 

New  York  Central  Railroad 299 

American  Waltham  Watch  Co 300 

Railroad  Time-Tables    .     .     .     . 327,  328 

California  Fruit  Growers  Exchange 336 

Ivory  Soap 211,  297,  340 

Chickering   Piano 341 

National  Biscuit  Co. — Nabisco 77,  194,  342 

National  Biscuit  Co. — Uneeda  Biscuit 343 

Franklin  Mills  Co.— Wheatlet 245,  277,  344 

Franklin   Mills   Co. — Egg-o-See 348 

Liebig  Co.'s  Extract  of  Beef 351 

Armour  &  Co 352,  353,  357 

White  Star  Coffee 169,  272,  354 

Korn  Krisp 355 

Malt  Marrow 357 


I 

INTRODUCTION 

Some  good  "doctoring"  was  done  when  men  "picked 
up"  their  knowledge  of  medicine  from  their  practice. 
To-day  the  state  laws  require  that  every  physician  shall 
have  a  basis  of  theory  for  his  practical  knowledge.  He 
must  know  the  exact  chemical  constituents  of  the  drugs 
used.  He  must  know  the  anatomy  and  the  physiology  of 
the  human  organism.  He  must  be  a  theoretical  man 
before  he  can  be  a  practical  one.  If  the  laws  did  not 
prohibit  it,  he  might  pick  up  a  good  deal  in  actual  experi- 
ence and  might  do  a  good  deal  of  excellent  work.  The 
state  laws,  however,  will  not  allow  us  to  run  chances 
with  such  people. 

We  would  not  call  upon  an  architect  to  construct  a 
modern  office  building  unless  he  knew  something  of  the 
theory  of  architecture.  We  would  not  call  upon  a 
lawyer  to  defend  us  before  the  courts  unless  he  knew 
something  of  the  theory  of  law.  Some  states  audacities 
require  teachers  to  pass  examinations  on  the  theory  of 
teaching  before  they  are  allowed  to  give  instruction. 

In  this  day  and  generation  we  are  not  afraid  of 
theories,  systems,  ideals,  and  imagination.  What  we  do 
avoid  is  chance,  luck,  haphazard  undertakings,  parrot  or 
rule-of-thumb  action,  and  the  like.  We  may  be  willing 
to  decide  on  unimportant  things  by  instinct  or  by  the 
flipping  of  a  coin,  but  when  it  comes  to  the  serious  things 
of  life  we  want  to  know  that  we  are  trusting  to  some- 
thing more  than  mere  chance. 

Advertising  is  a  serious  thing  with  the  business  man 


•2         THE   PSYCKOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

of  to-day.  It  is  estimated  that  the  business  men  of  the 
United  States  are  spending  $800,000,000  a  year  in 
printed  forms  of  advertising.  Furthermore  one  au- 
thority claims  that  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  all  this  is 
unprofitable.  Every  business  man  is  anxious  that  no 
part  of  these  unprofitable  advertisements  shall  fall  to  his 
lot.  The  enormity  of  the  expense,  the  keenness  of  com- 
petition, and  the  great  liability  of  failure  have  awakened 
the  advertising  world  to  the  pressing  need  for  some 
basis  of  assurance  in  its  hazardous  undertakings. 

I  have  attempted  to  read  broadly  on  the  subject  of 
advertising ;  I  have  taken  an  active  part  in  various  kinds 
of  advertising;  I  have  been  in  intimate  contact  with 
manufacturers,  salesmen,  publishers,  professional  ad- 
vertisers, etc.,  and  in  all  that  I  have  read,  and  in  all  my 
conversations,  I  have  never  seen  or  heard  any  reference 
to  anything  except  psychology  which  could  furnish  a 
stable  foundation  for  a  theory  of  advertising.  Nothing 
else  is  ever  suggested  as  a  possibility.  Ordinarily  the 
business  man  does  not  realize  that  he  means  psychology 
when  he  says  that  he  "must  know  his  customers'  wants — 
what  will^catch  their  attention,  what  will  impress  them 
and  lead  them  to  buy,"  etc.  In  all  these  expressions  he 
is  saying  that  he  must  be  a  psychologist.  He  is  talking 
about  the  minds  of  his  customers,  and  psychology  is 
nothing  but  a  stubborn  and  systematic  attempt  to  under- 
stand and  explain  the  workings  of  the  minds  of  these 
very  people.  In  Printers^  Ink  for  October,  1895,  ap- 
peared the  following  editorial : 

Probably  when  we  are  a  little  more  enlightened,  the  adver- 
tising writer,  like  the  teacher,  will  study  psychology.  For, 
however  diverse  their  occupation  may  at  first  sight  appear,  the 
advertising  writer  and  the  teacher  have  one  great  object  in 
common — to  influence  the  human  mind.     The  teacher  has  a 


INTRODUCTION  3 

scientific  foundation  for  Ms  work  in  that  direction,  but  the 
advertising  writer  is  really  also  a  psychologist.  Human  nature 
is  a  great  factor  in  advertising  success,  and  he  who  writes 
advertisements  without  reference  to  it  is  apt  to  find  that  he 
has  reckoned  without  his  host. 

In  Publicity^  March,  1901,  appeared  an  article  which 
is  even  more  suggestive  than  the  editorial  in  Printers^ 
Ink.   The  following  is  a  quotation  from  that  article : 

The  time  is  not  far  away  when  the  advertising  writer  will 
find  out  the  inestimable  benefits  of  a  knowledge  of  psychology. 
The  preparation  of  copy  has  usually  followed  the  instincts 
rather  than  the  analytical  functions.  An  advertisement  has 
been  written  to  describe  the  articles  which  it  was  wished  to 
place  before  the  reader;  a  bit  of  cleverness,  an  attractive  cut, 
or  some  other  catchy  device  has  been  used,  with  the  hope  that 
the  hit  or  miss  ratio  could  be  made  as  favorable  as  possible. 

But  the  future  must  needs  be  full  of  better  methods  than 
these  to  make  advertising  advance  with  the  same  rapidity  as 
it  has  during  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century.  And  this  will 
come  through  a  closer  knowledge  of  the  psychological  composi- 
tion of  the  mind.  The  so-called  "students  of  human  nature" 
will  then  be  called  successful  psychologists,  and  the  successful 
advertisers  will  be  likewise  termed  psychological  advertisers. 

The  mere  mention  of  psychological  terms — habit,  self,  con- 
ception, discrimination,  association,  memory,  imagination  and. 
perception,  reason,  emotion,  instinct,  and  will — should  create 
a  flood  of  new  thought  that  should  appeal  to  every  advanced 
consumer  of  advertising  space. 

Previous  to  the  appearance  of  this  article  (March, 
1901)  there  had  been  no  attempt  to  present  psychology 
to  the  business  world  in  a  usable  form.  As  far  as  the 
advertiser  could  see  all  psychologies  were  written  with 
a  purely  theoretical  end  in  view.  They  contained  a  vast 
amount  of  technical  material  devoid  of  interest  to  the 
layman  who  struggled  through  the  pages.  This  condi- 
tion made  it  quite  difficult  for  the  business  man  to  ex- 
tract that  part  of  the  subject  which  was  of  value  to  him. 


4         THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Several  of  the  leading  advertising  magazines  and  ad- 
vertising agencies  sought  to  father  a  movement  which 
would  result  in  such  a  presentation  of  the  subject  of 
psychology  that  it  would  be  of  use  to  the  intelligent 
and  practical  advertiser.  These  efforts  on  the  part  of 
the  advertis'ers  were  successful  in  stimulating  several 
professional  psychologists  to  co-operate  with  practical 
advertisers  in  applying  psychology  to  advertising. 
Psychological  laboratories  were  fitted  up  to  make  vari- 
ous tests  upon  advertisements.  Elaborate  investigations 
were  undertaken  and  carried  through  to  a  successful 
issue.  Psychologists  turned  to  the  study  of  advertisings 
in  all  its  phases  while,  on  the  other  hand,  intelligent  and 
successful  advertisers  began  to  devote  attention  to  a 
systematic  study  of  psychology.  Investigators  in  the 
various  parts  of  the  country  and  among  different  classes 
of  society  united  in  their  efforts  to  solve  some  of  the 
knotty  problems  which  are  ever  before  the  business  man 
who  desires  publicity  for  his  commodity.  Addresses 
were  made  before  advertising  clubs  upon  the  specific 
topic  of  the  psychology  of  advertising.  The  leading 
advertising  journals  in  America  and  Europe  sought  and 
published  articles  on  the  subject. 

The  changed  attitude  of  the  advertising  world  be- 
came apparent  in  a  few  years.  As  typical  of  this  change 
should  be  considered  such  statements  as  the  following, 
taken  from  Printers'  Ink,  the  issue  of  July  24,  1907: 
"Scientific  advertising  follows  the  laws  of  psychology. 
The  successful  advertiser,  either  personally  or  through 
his  advertising  department,  must  carefully  study  psy- 
chology. He  must  understand  how  the  human  mind 
acts.  He  must  know  what  repels  and  what  attracts. 
He  must  know  what  will  create  an  interest  and  what 
will   fall   flat.  .  .  .  He  must  be   a   student   of  human 


INTRODUCTION  5 

nature,  and  he  must  know  the  laws  of  the  human  mind." 
Although  italics  were  not  used  in  the  original,  the  word 
^^must"  is  here  put  in  italics  to  draw  attention  to  the 
actual  emphasis  used  by  the  author.  In  articles  appear- 
ing on  the  subject  before  the  last  few  years,  all  persons 
had  spoken  of  the  study  of  psychology  as  something 
which  might  be  brought  about  in  the  future.  At  the 
present  time  the  writers  are  asserting  that  the  success- 
ful advertiser  must  study  psychology  and  that  he  must 
do  it  at  once.  The  Bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  vol- 
ume contains  the  names  of  the  important  contributions 
made  to  the  psychology  of  advertising  during  the  last 
twenty-four  years. 

Although  the  attitude  of  the  advertising  world  has 
changed  and  even  though  much  has  been  done  to  pre- 
sent psychology  in  a  helpful  form  to  the  advertisers, 
the  work  of  the  psychologist  is  not  yet  available  to  the 
business  world  because  the  material  has  not  been  pre- 
sented in  any  one  accessible  place.  Contributions  are 
scattered  through  the  files  of  a  score  of  American  and 
European  publications.  Some  articles  appearing  under 
this  head  are  of  minor  significance,  while  others  are  so 
important  that  they  should  be  collected  in  a  place  and 
form  such  that  they  would  be  available  to  the  largest 
possible  number  of  readers.  The  psychology  of  adver- 
tising has  reached  a  stage  in  its  development  where  all 
that  has  thus  far  been  accomplished  should  be  recon- 
sidered. The  worthless  should  be  discarded  and  the 
valuable  brought  out  into  due  prominence  in  systematic 
arrangement.  In  view  of  this  condition  of  affairs  the 
author  has  assumed  the  pleasing  task  of  systematizing 
the  subject  of  the  psychology  of  advertising  and  of  pre- 
senting it  in  such  a  form  that  it  will  be  of  distinct 
practical  value  to  all  who  are  interested  in  business 
promotion. 


6         THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 


II 

PERCEPTION 

Between  our  minds  and  bodies  there  is  the  closest 
possible  relationship.  The  basis  of  this  relationship 
is  the  nervous  system.  For  our  present  purposes  the 
nervous  system  may  be  thought  of  as  consisting  of 
three  parts :  the  brain,  the  nerve  endings  (sense  organs), 
and  the  fibers  connecting  the  brain  to  these  nerve  end- 
ings. The  brain  fills  the  skull  and  is  about  one-fortieth 
of  the  weight  of  the  entire  body.  The  nerve  endings 
are  found  in  the  so-called  sense  organs,  that  is,  the  eyes, 
the  nose,  the  mouth,  the  ears,  and  the  skin,  and  also 
in  the  joints  and  muscles.  The  nerve  fibers  are  white, 
threadlike  bands,  which  connect  each  nerve  ending  with 
a  particular  part  of  the  brain,  e.g.,  the  optic  nerve  is 
such  a  bundle  of  nerve  fibers  and  it  connects  the  various 
nerve  endings  in  the  eye  with  specific  portions  of  the 
back  part  of  the  brain.  The  function  of  the  nervous 
system  may  be  likened  to  the  transmitter,  connecting 
wire,  and  receiver  of  a  telephone.  The  similarity  is 
striking  in  the  case  of  all  the  nerve  endings,  but  par- 
ticularly so  in  the  case  of  the  ear.  If  air  waves  of  a 
certain  quality  and  of  sufficient  intensity  strike  against 
the  transmitter  of  a  telephone,  electric  currents  are  set 
up.  They  are  propagated  along  the  line  till  they  reach 
the  receiver.  Here  they  reassume  the  form  of  air  waves, 
and  when  heard  are  what  we  call  sound.  If  air  waves, 
vibrating  from  fourteen  to  forty  thousand  times  a  sec- 
ond, strike  against  our  ear,  a  corresponding  wave  is 


PERCEPTION  7 

propagated  along  the  auditory  nerve  to  the  brain,  where 
by  some  unknown  process  a  sensation  of  sound  is  awak- 
ened which  corresponds  to  the  air  wave.  It  will  be 
sufficient  to  regard  this  and  all  other  sensations  as 
the  direct  result  of  the  contact  of  the  outer  world  with 
our  nerve  endings  and  particularly  with  our  sense  or- 
gans. The  more  intense  the  contact  the  more  intense 
the  sensation,  and  the  quality  of  the  sensation  changes 
with  the  quality  of  the  contact. 

The  first  time  a  child  opens  its  eyes  the  ether  waves 
strike  against  the  retina  in  which  the  nerve  endings  are 
located.  Here  a  current  is  set  up  which  is  propagated 
to  the  brain.  Then  a  pure  sensation  of  sight  occurs.  The 
nature  of  the  sensation  depends  entirely  on  the  nature 
of  the  light  and  the  current  which  it  sets  up.  There 
is  no  recognition  of  the  light,  there  is  no  comparison 
of  it  with  other  sensations,  and  no  fusing  of  it  into 
former  sensations.  This  is  the  only  really  pure  sen- 
sation of  sight  which  the  child  will  ever  have,  for  its 
next  sensation  of  sight  will  be  seen  in  relation  to  the 
first  sensation.  It  would  be  affirming  too  much  to  say 
that  the  child  recognizes  or  compares  this  second  sen- 
sation, but  it  is  quite  certain  that  this  second  sensa- 
tion is  to  a  very  limited  degree  modified  because  of  the 
preceding  one.  The  second  experience  is  added  to  from 
the  previous  one  and  so  is  not  a  pure  sensation,  but  is 
a  perception.  A  perception  is  a  fusion  of  sensations 
with  former  experiences  and  embraces  comparison,  rec- 
ognition, etc.  When  the  term  "perception"  is  used, 
special  reference  is  intended  to  the  sensation  or  sensa- 
tions which  are  received  through  the  sense  organs  and 
which  enter  into  the  total  product  called  a  perception. 
In  the  case  of  a  young  child,  perceptions  are  largely 
sensational,  while  former  experiences  play  a  small  part. 


8         THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

When  we  come  into  contact  with  new  objects  or  come 
into  new  experiences,  we  depend  upon  sensations  to 
form  a  large  part  of  our  perceptions,  and  the  former 
experiences  add  relatively  a  small  part  to  the  total 
product.  The  first  time  we  saw  an  orange,  we  saw  it 
merely  as  an  object  of  a  particular  color.  Then  we 
touched  it,  and  our  perception  of  it  became  the  per- 
ception of  an  object  with  a  particular  color  and  a  par- 
ticular shape  and  touch.  Then  we  tasted  and  smelt 
it,  and  each  of  these  new  sensations  added  a  new  ele- 
ment to  our  perception.  Now,  as  we  see  an  orange  in 
the  distance,  we  perceive  it  as  an  object  having  a  certain 
color,  touch,  taste,  odor,  weight,  etc.  The  only  sen- 
sation that  we  have,  as  the  orange  is  in  the  distance, 
is  one  of  sight,  but  our  perception  contains  these  other 
elements  which  we  add  from  our  former  experience. 
Little  by  little  the  elements  added  to  perception  by 
sensation  decrease  and  the  elements  added  by  former 
experience  increase  till  we  can  get  a  good  perception 
of  an  orange  even  if  it  is  at  a  great  distance  from  us 
and  if  it  is  in  poor  light.  The  process  continues  and 
we  begin  to  use  symbols  for  the  object  and  our  per- 
ceptions are  of  symbols  rather  than  of  objects.  One 
of  the  first  symbols  to  be  perceived  is  the  spoken  word, 
later  the^  picture,  and  then  the  printed  word.  The  spoken 
word  "orange''  becomes  associated  with  the  sight,  touch, 
taste,  etc.,  of  the  fruit.  Whenever  we  hear  the  word 
"orange"  we  immediately  think  of  the  fruit  with  its 
special  appearance,  touch,  taste,  etc.  Our  awareness 
of  the  absent  object  is  called  an  "idea,"  awareness  of 
objects  present  to  the  senses  is  called  a  "perception." 
The  symbol  has  no  symbolic  signification,  and  becomes 
the  object  of  the  sensation  itself  unless  it  typifies  to 
the  persons  something  which  they  have  met  in  their 


PERCEPTION  9 

former  experience.  Thus  a  Chinese  letter  is  to  me  no 
symbol,  but  is  a  group  of  lines.  As  I  look  at  it  I  re- 
ceive the  same  sensation  that  a  Chinaman  does,  but 
the  perception  is  ditferent  because  he  adds  more  from 
his  former  experience  than  I  do.  The  letter  awakens 
in  his  mind  an  idea  of  some  object  or  event  which  is 
symbolized  by  the  letter.  The  letter  awakens  in  my 
mind  no  idea  because  it  has  not  been  associated  in 
my  experience  with  any  object  or  event. 

A  cartoon  of  Woodrow  Wilson  awakens  in  me  an 
idea  of  the  man  rather  than  a  perception  of  the  few 
curved  and  straight  lines  composing  the  symbolic  car- 
toon. 

The  distinction  between  the  terms  ^^perception"  and 
^^idea^'  is  very  small.  If  an  orange  is  before  me,  I  per- 
ceive the  orange.  If  a  symbol  of  an  orange  is  before 
me,  I  may  merely  perceive  the  symbol  that  is  present 
or  the  symbol  may  awaken  in  my  mind  an  idea  of  the 
absent  orange. 

Whether  we  are  thinking  of  present  or  absent  ob- 
jects,— whether  our  thought  is  in  the  form  of  percep- 
tions or  of  ideas, — it  is  certain  that  a  large  part  of  our 
thinking  is  determined  by  the  sensations  which  come 
to  us  through  eye  and  ear,  and  the  other  sense 
organs.  We  first  become  acquainted  with  objects 
through  the  sensations  which  we  receive  from  them, 
and  when  we  think  of  them  afterward  we  think  in  terms 
of  sensations.  If  I  should  try  to  learn  about  a  new 
kind  of  fruit  which  was  discovered  in  Africa,  I  could 
acquire  the  knowledge  of  it  in  two  different  ways:  I 
could  secure  some  of  the  fruit  and  then  receive  all  the 
sensations  from  it  possible.  I  would  look  at  it,  touch 
it,  lift  it,  smell  it,  bite  it,  taste  it.  This  would  be  the 
best  way  to  learn  of  it.    If  this  were  impossible  I  might 


10       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

read  descriptions  and  see  pictures  of  it  and  then  I 
would  think  of  it  (have  ideas  of  it)  in  terms  of  touch, 
weight,  smell,  and  taste  which  were  taken  from  former 
experiences  in  which  similar  objects  were  present  to 
my  senses.  Whether  we  think  by  means  of  perceptions 
or  by  means  of  ideas,  the  original  material  of  thought 
and  the  forms  of  thought  come  to  us  in  sensations. 

The  original,  easiest,  and  surest  method  of  acquiring 
knowledge  is  through  perceptions,  in  which  the  sen- 
sations play  a  leading  part.  In  many  instances  the 
object  of  thought  cannot  be  present  to  the  senses  and, 
furthermore,  the  processes  of  thought  are  made  more 
rapid  by  substituting  symbols  for  the  original.  Thus, 
early  in  the  history  of  the  race,  a  spoken  language  was 
developed  in  which  spoken  words  were  symbols  for  ob- 
jects of  thought.  Later,  a  pictorial  writing  was  in- 
vented in  which  crude  portraits  were  made  to  symbolize 
objects.  The  latest  products  of  civilized  humanity  in 
this  direction  are,  first,  more  perfect  portraits  land, 
second,  a  form  of  printed  language  in  which  the  original 
symbolic  spoken  word  is  represented  by  a  sym]t>ol.  This 
second  form  is  the  most  convenient  and  is  the  one  in 
ordinary  use,  but  it  should  be  observed  that  our  printed 
words  are  nothing  but  symbols  of  symbols.  The  printed 
word  is  an  uninteresting  thing  in  itself  and  is  only  used 
because  it  assists  perception  on  account  of  its  sim- 
plicity and  ease  of  manipulation.  It  is  easy  to  de- 
scribe a  scene  or  a  commodity  and  to  reduce  the 
description  to  printed  form  that  will  be  accessible  to 
thousands.  It  would  be  extremely  difficult  to  deliver 
the  scene  and  the  commodity  directly  to  these  same 
people.  The  description  and  illustration  are,  however, 
not  so  clear,  distinct,  and  interesting  as  is  the  original 
thing  described      The  great  danger  with  the  printed 


PERCEPTION  11 

symbol  is  that  it  will  lose  in  perspicuity  and  interest 
what  it  gains  in  convenience.  The  printed  word  has 
almost  no  interest  for  us  in  itself.  It  becomes  inter- 
esting only  in  so  far  as  it  symbolizes  interesting  things 
to  us.  The  more  the  printed  page  has  to  say  and  the 
easier  it  is  for  us  to  interpret  it,  the  more  interesting 
it  becomes. 

Whether  fortunately  or  unfortunately,  the  advertiser 
is  compelled  to  rely  on  symbols  in  exploiting  what  he 
has  to  offer.  He  cannot,  ordinarily,  provide  the  pos- 
sible customer  with  that  which  he  has  to  offer  and  thus 
allow  him  to  become  acquainted  with  the  goods  in  the 
normal  and  direct  way.  He  is  compelled  to  substitute 
the  symbol  for  the  thing  symbolized.  He  has  a  choice 
between  two  kinds  of  symbols — printed  words  and  pic- 
torial illustrations. 

The  first  form  of  writing  was  picture  writing,  but 
was  abandoned  because  it  was  not  so  convenient  as 
are  the  phonetic  characters  now  in  use.  Picture  writ- 
ing could  not  be  written  or  read  so  easily  and  quickly 
as  the  writing  in  the  characters  now  in  use  and  it  was 
therefore  discarded.  According  to  the  standard  of  ease 
of  interpretation,  all  forms  of  type  must  be  judged.  Type 
forms  must  not  be  regarded  as  a  production  of  artistic 
demands,  but  as  a  product  of  the  demands  of  con- 
venience. Hundreds  of  styles  of  "artistic  type"  have 
been  brought  forth,  but  they  have  not  remained  in  use,  for 
they  are  confusing  to  the  eye  and  are  not  artistic  in  the 
full  sense  of  the  term.  Those  forms  of  type  and  of 
illustration  best  perform  their  proper  functions  which 
are  so  easy  of  interpretation  that  they  are  not  noticed 
at  all.  There  is  no  advantage  in  emphasizing  the  sym- 
bol, but  there  is  a  great  advantage  in  emphasizing  the 
thing  symbolized.     In  using  printed  forms,  the  adver- 


12       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

tiser  supplies  a  very  small  part  to  the  total  idea  whicli 
lie  desires  to  create,  and  he  should  therefore  make  this 
little  mean  as  much  as  possible. 

A  series  of  experiments  were  carried  on  to  determine 
whether  white  or  black  type  made  the  more  attractive 
display  in  magazine  advertisements.  Experiments  were 
made  with  over  five  hundred  persons.  The  background 
for  the  white  type  was  gray  in  some  cases,  but  in  most 
cases  it  was  black.  The  results  show  that  the  ordinary 
reader  is  more  likely  to  notice  display  type  which  is 
black  than  a  display  type  of  the  same  sort  which  is 
white. 

A  series  of  laboratory  experiments  were  made  on  the 
same  subject.  Specially  prepared  pages  were  shown 
for  one-seventh  of  a  second.  On  part  of  the  sheets  black 
letters  on  white  background  and  white  letters  on  black 
background  were  shown.  In  other  cases  one  half  of 
the  sheet  had  a  black  background,  with  words  in  wiiite 
type,  and  the  other  half  of  the  sheet  had  a  white  back- 
ground with  words  in  black  type.  Scores  of  cards  were 
constructed  in  which  all  the  possible  combinations  of 
white  and  black  were  made  and  shown  to  a  number 
of  persons  for  such  a  short  space  of  time  that  no  one 
could  perceive  all  there  was  on  any  sheet.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  subjects  s;aw  what  first  attracted 
their  attention  and  what  was  the  easiest  to  perceive. 
The  final  results  showed  that  the  black  letters  on  a 
white  background  were  seen  oftener  than  the  white 
type  on  a  black  background. 

It  seems  quite  certain  that,  other  things  being  equal, 
tliose  advertisements  will  be  the  most  often  read  which 
are  printed  in  type  which  is  the  most  easily  read.  The 
difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  type  in  many  cases 
may  be  so  small  that  even  persons  experienced  in  the 


PERCEPTION  13 

choosing  of  type  may  not  be  able  to  tell  which  one 
is  the  more  legible,  and  yet  the  difference  in  their 
values  may  be  great  enough  to  make  it  a  matter  of 
importance  to  the  advertiser  as  to  which  type  he  shall 
use. 

If  the  matter  of  the  proper  use  of  type  is  of  impor- 
tance to  the  advertiser,  it  is  even  more  important  that 
he  should  make  a  wise  use  of  the  illustration,  which  is 
the  second  form  of  symbol  at  his  disposal. 

The  illustration  is  frequently  used  merely  as  a 
means  of  attracting  attention,  and  its  function  as  a 
symbolic  illustration  is  disregarded.  In  a  few  cases 
this  may  be  wise  and  even  necessary,  but  when  we  con- 
sider the  value  of  an  illustration  as  a  symbol,  we  are 
surprised  that  illustrations  are  not  used  more  exten- 
sively as  well  as  more  judiciously.  The  first  form  of 
writing,  as  stated  above,  was  picture  writing,  and  the 
most  simple  and  direct  form  of  graphic  representation 
is  through  the  picture  and  not  through  the  printed 
word.  At  a  single  glance  we  can  usually  read  about 
four  words;  that  is  to  say,  the  width  of  perception  for 
printed  words  is  about  four.  At  a  single  glance  at 
an  illustration  we  can  see  as  much  as  could  be  told  in 
a  whole  page  of  printed  matter.  The  width  of  percep- 
tion for  Illustrations  is  very  much  more  extensive  than 
it  is  for  printed  forms  of  expression. 

The  illustration  may  perform  either  one  or  both  of 
two  functions.  It  may  be  a  mere  picture  used  to 
attract  attention  or  it  may  be  an  "illustration"  and 
a  real  aid  to  perception  by  assisting  the  text  to  tell  the 
story  which  is  to  be  presented.  In  the  first  case  it 
would  be  called  an  irrelevant  illustration;  in  the  second 
case  it  is  relevant.  There  have  been  several  investi- 
gations carried  on  to  determine  the  relative  attention 


14       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

value  of  relevant  and  irrelevant  illustrations.  Although 
the  results  thus  far  reached  are  not  so  decisive  as  might 
be  desired,  yet  it  seems  certain  that  the  attention  value 
of  relevant  illustrations  is  greater  than  had  been  sup- 
posed and  that  the  irrelevant  ^'picture"  is  frequently 
not  so  potent  in  attracting  attention  as  a  relevant  illus- 
tration would  be.  Under  these  circumstances  it  seems 
that,  in  general,  the  illustration  in  an  advertisement 
should  have  the  double  function  of  attracting  attention 
and  assisting  perception.  Which  one  of  these  functions 
is  the  more  important  might  be  a  profitable  question 
for  discussion,  but  when  these  two  functions  can  be 
united  in  the  same  illustration,  its  value  is  enhanced 
twofold.  Irrelevant  illustrations  are  produced  merely 
because  they  are  supposed  to  attract  attention,  when  in 
reality  they  may  attract  the  attention  of  no  one  except 
the  person  who  designed  them  and  of  the  unfortunate 
man  who  has  to  pay  for  them.  Similarly  there  are  many 
illustrations  produced  and  inserted  in  advertisements 
because  they  are  supposed  to  assist  the  perception.  They 
are  supposed  to  tell  the  story  of  the  goods  advertised 
and  to  be  a  form  of  argumentation.  The  designer  of 
the  illustration  and  one  familiar  with  the  goods  knows 
what  the  picture  stands  for,  and  so  for  him  it  is  a  symbol 
of  the  goods  and  tells  the  story  of  the  special  advantages 
of  the  goods.  To  one  unacquainted  with  the  illustra- 
tion and  with  the  goods  advertised,  the  illustration  is 
no  illustration  at  all. 

When  we  want  to  teach  a  child  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  we  do  not  secure  some  "sketchy"  and  artistic 
looking  letters,,  but  we  secure  those  which  are  simple 
in  outline  and  of  a  large  size.  We  choose  those  which 
make  a  very  decided  sensation,  for  in  that  way  we  help 
determine   the  perception.      When   the  child  becomes 


PERCEPTION 


15 


more  familiar  with  the  alphabet,  he  can  read  small 
letters  and  those  which  are  not  printed  so  plainly.  In 
forming  perceptions  there  must  at  first  be  a  large  ele- 
ment furnished  by  sensation,  whether  the  perception 
be  formed  from  an  object  directly  or  indirectly  from 
a  symbol.  Those  who  forget  this  principle  are  likely 
to  construct  illustrations  which  do  not  illustrate.  Their 
symbols  are  only  symbols  for  those  who  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  goods  advertised.  As  an  example 
of  this  sort  of  illustrations  we  reproduce  herewith  an 
illustration  from  magazine  advertising. 


EP.C. 
WAX 

is  the 
l>est 
and 
most 
econ- 
omical 
Laun- 
dry 
Wax 
sold 


your 


The 
kind 

that  keeps' 
the  iron 

CLEAN 
(aSMOOTH 


Put  up  in  little  wooden 
tubes  with  an  automatic 
handle  that  keeps  the 
wax  in  position  and 
prevents  waste 
The  neatest  and  nicest 
•way  that  wax  can  be 
used  for  ironing  purpose  ^ 

AND 

for  S  two-cent  stamps 

we  will  send  you  2* 

sticks  to  try -After  that 

they  can  be  had  from 

dealer  'cause  Z  never  satisfy 


FLAME  PROOF  CO. 


NEW    YORK 


No.  1 


16       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

This  advertisement  for  F.  P.  C.  wax  (No.  1)  seems 
to  be  an  attempt  to  tell  a  great  deal  about  the  goods 
by  means  of  an  illustration.  It  took  me  some  time  to 
translate  it,  and  after  I  had  interpreted  it  as  far  as 
possible,  I  showed  it  to  some  ladies  who  were  maga- 
zine readers.  None  of  them  had  ever  taken  the  pains 
to  figure  it  out.  One  of  them  thought  that  it  was 
an  advertisement  of  Bibles.  When  my  attention  was 
called  to  it,  I  saw  the  resemblance  between  the  cut  as 
a  whole  and  the  cover  of  an  ordinary  Bible.  The  white 
space  is  evidently  intended  to  look  like  the  bottom  of 
an  iron  and  the  border  containing  the  words  "F.  P.  C 
Wax"  is  intended  for  a  cut  of  a  stick  of  the  wax.  None 
of  the  ladies  had  interpreted  the  cut  in  that  way,  but 
when  their  attention  was  called  to  it,  they  agreed  with 
me  that  that  was  probably  what  the  "artist"  had  in- 
tended. We  were  unable  to  interpret  the  white  dots 
and  the  heavy  black  border.  To  those  familiar  with 
the  advertisement  the  sensation  aroused  by  the  cut 
is  sufficient  to  produce  the  desired  perception.  For  all 
others  the  sensation  is  not  sufficient  to  call  up  the 
necessary  elements  to  complete  the  perception  and  it 
has  no  more  meaning  than  a  Chinese  puzzle.  It  has 
nothing  which  it  seems  to  be  trying  to  tell  to  those  who 
turn  over  the  pages  of  the  magazine,  and  so  does  not 
attract  their  attention.  We  notice  those  illustrations 
which  have  something  to  say  and  say  it  plainly.  We 
disregard  in  general  those  things  which  do  not  awaken 
in  us  a  perception.  The  sensation  which  does  not  em- 
body itself  into  a  perception  is  of  such  little  interest  to 
us  that  we  pay  no  attention  to  it  at  all. 

The  advertiser  desires  to  produce  certain  percep- 
tions and  ideas  in  the  minds  of  the  possible  customers. 
The  material   means  with   which   he   may   accomplish 


PERCEPTION 


17 


this  end  are  printed  words  and  illustrations,  which  in 
the  first  instance  awaken  sensations;  these  in  turn  em- 
body themselves  into  perceptions  and  ideas.  These  sen- 
sations seem  so  unimportant  that  they  are  frequently 


No.  2 


forgotten  and  the  place  which  they  are  to  take  in  form- 
ing the  desired  perceptions  and  ideas  is  disregarded. 

This  second  advertisement  of  F.  P.  0/ wax  (No.  2) 
appeared  several  months  later  than  the  one  given  above, 
and  is  inserted  here  to  illustrate  how  an  advertise- 
ment may  be  improved  in  the  particular  point  under 
discussion.    The  newer  cut  is  really  an  illustration.    It 


18       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

helps  perception  by  giving  a  sensation  which  is  more 
decided  and  more  easily  interpreted.  It  furthermore 
attracts  attention  and  tells  the  story  better  than  could 
be  done  by  any  text. 

The  advertiser  is  so  familiar  with  what  he  has  to 
offer  that  he  cannot  appreciate  the  difficulty  the  pub- 
lic has  in  getting  a  clear  and  complete  perception  by 
means  of  his  advertisements  of  the  goods  advertised. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  err  on  the  side  of  clear- 
ness. A  sketchy  illustration  may  appear  artistic  to 
the  designer,  but  there  is  danger  that  it  will  be  re- 
garded as  meaningless  scrawls  by  the  laity,  and  so  it 
will  not  receive  a  second  thought  from  them.  The  text 
and  the  illustration  should,  first  of  all,  be  clear  and 
should  in  every  way  possible  assist  the  mind  of  the 
possible  customer  in  forming  a  correct  idea  of  the  goods 
being  exploited. 


APPERCEPTION  19 


III 

APPERCEPTION 

Anatomy  is  the  science  which  divides  the  human 
body  into  its  constituent  parts,  and  is  a  completed 
science  when  it  has  all  of  these  parts  correctly  described 
and  labeled.  Physiology  is  the  science  which  describes 
and  explains  the  different  functions  of  the  human  body. 
It  supplements  anatomy  by  showing  the  function  of  each 
of  the  bones,  muscles,  and  organs,  and  by  showing  their 
mutual  relations.  In  anatomy  we  divide  the  body  into 
distinct  divisions,  and  in  physiology  we  discover  differ- 
ent functions.  We  often  try  to  think  of  mind  after  the 
analogy  of  the  body,  and  by  so  doing  are  led  into  con- 
fusion. The  attempt  has  been  made  to  divide  the  mind 
into  a  definite  number  of  separate  faculties  (anatomy). 
The  function  of  each  faculty  has  been  described  as  some- 
thing quite  different  from  the  other  faculties,  and  an 
attempt  was  made  to  define  these  faculties  exactly  and 
to  describe  their  functions  completely  (physiology). 
The  attempt  has  failed  and  has  been  abandoned.  The 
mind  is  not  a  bundle  of  faculties.  It  is  not  com- 
posed of  memory,  reason,  association,  etc.,  but  it  is 
a  unit  which  remembers,  reasons,  feels,  etc.  No  one 
function  is  carried  on  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others  at 
any  one  time.  During  all  of  its  conscious  existence 
the  mind  feels,  knows,  wills,  etc.,  but  at  certain  times 
it  is  employed  in  reasoning  more  than  at  others,  and  at 
one  time  it  may  be  feeling  more  intensely  than  at  others, 
but  no  one  function  ever  totally   occupies   the   field. 


20       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

When  the  mind  recognizes  an  event  as  having  occurred 
in  tlie  past,  it  is  said  to  remember,  but  feeling,  atten- 
tion, and  association  of  ideas  may  have  entered  into  this 
process  of  memory.  No  one  mental  process  is  a  thing 
existing  apart  and  independent  of  other  processes.  The 
anatomical  method  can  never  be  applied  to  the  mind. 
The  functions  of  the  mind  are  not  independent  activities 
of  the  mind,  but  in  every  function  memory,  perception, 
suggestion,  and  many  other  functions  play  a  more  or 
less  important  part. 

We  have  no  "apperceiving"  faculty  which  is  to  be 
distinguished  from  all  other  faculties,  and  which  carries 
on  an  independent  process.  The  mind  does  act  in  a  par- 
ticular and  well-known  manner,  which  we  have  called 
"apperception."  The  term  has  been  used  for  two 
centuries,  and  is  applied  to  a  well-known  process,  or 
function,  of  the  mind  which  is  of  great  practical  and 
theoretical  importance.  It  includes  sensations,  percep- 
tions, assimilation,  association,  recognition,  feeling,  will, 
attention,  and  other  actions  of  the  mind,  and  yet  is  a 
very  simple  and  well-known  process.  It  can  best  be 
understood  if  discussed  and  illustrated  from  its  various 
aspects. 

The  first  thing  to  be  said  about  apperception  is  that 
it  is  the  act  of  the  mind  by  which  perceptions  and  ideas 
become  clear  and  distinct.  I  may  look  at  my  ink  bottle 
on  the  middle  of  the  table.  I  see  it  very  clearly  and 
distinctly.  I  can  also  see,  at  the  same  time,  other 
objects  on  the  table,  and  even  some  which  are  not  on 
it  at  all.  As  long  as  I  continue  to  look  at  the  ink  bottle 
the  objects  distant  from  the  table  are  not  visible.  The 
ink  bottle  is  very  clear  and  the  objects  near  it  are  com- 
paratively so ;  those  a  few  feet  away  are  very  indistinct 
or  entirelv  invisible.     I  am  said  to  apperceive  the  bottle, 


APPERCEPTION  21 

but  to  perceive  the  more  distant  objects.  Certain  parts 
of  the  bottle  are  not  noticed  particularly,  while  some  of 
the  objects  on  the  table  stand  out  plainly.  It  is  quite 
evident  that  ^^clearness"  does  not  draw  a  set  line  between 
the  various  objects,  but  there  are  all  grades  of  clear- 
ness, from  the  most  clear  to  the  most  obscure.  We 
feel  that  the  mental  process  connected  with  the  ink 
bottle  and  that  connected  with  the  other  objects  are 
different  and  yet  there  is  an  uninterrupted  gradation 
from  one  to  the  other.  When  considered  from  this  point 
of  view  apperception  is  simply  an  act  of  attention,  for 
what  we  attend  to  becomes  clear  and  distinct  to  us, 
while  that  which  is  not  attended  to  remains  indistinct. 
Furthermore,  there  are  all  degrees  of  attention.  Certain 
things  demand  our  greatest  attention,  while  others  are 
entirely  disregarded.  Most  things,  however,  are  of  the 
intermediary  class.  We  pay  a  certain  amount  of  atten- 
tion to  them,  but  they  might  easily  receive  more  or  less. 
Some  things  catch  our  attention  so  slightly  (are  so 
slightly  apperceived)  that  we  are  not  aware  that  we 
have  noticed  them  at  all.  I  did  not  know  that  I  had 
ever  noticed  the  walls  of  the  barber  shop  which  I  patron- 
ize, but  as  soon  as  I  entered  it  recently  I  knew  that 
changes  liad  been  made,  and  I  missed  certain  details 
which  I  had  frequently  seen,  but  to  which  I  had  paid 
so  little  heed  that  they  were  merely  perceived  and  could 
not  be  said  to  have  been  apperceived  at  all. 

The  second  thing  to  remark  about  apperception  is  that 
it  is  more  than  mere  attention.  It  is  attention  of  a 
particular  kind.  Our  attention  to  an  object  or  event  is 
an  act  of  apperception  if  the  attention  is  brought  about 
by  means  of  the  relationship  of  this  object  or  event  to 
our  previous  experience.  Apperception  has  been  defined 
as  the  bringing  to  hear  what  has  been  retained  of  past 


^22       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

experience  in  such  a  way  as  to  interpret^  to  give  weight 
to  the  new  experience.  This  aspect  of  apperception  has 
been  most  clearly  brought  out  in  the  following  quota- 
tion from  Dexter  and  Garlack : 

"A  child  who  has  not  learned  any  physiology,  and  who 
has  not  previously  looked  through  a  microscope,  looks  at 
a  drop  of  blood  under  the  microscope.  He  probably 
says  that  he  sees  nothing. 

"Another  child  who  has,  we  will  suppose,  studied 
botanical  sections  under  the  microscope,  looks  at  the 
same  drop  of  blood  and  says  that  he  sees  some  small 
round  bodies. 

"A  third  child  who  has  learned  a  little  physiology, 
looks  through  the  microscope,  recognizes  the  small  round 
bodies  as  corpuscles,  notes  that  the  majority  are  red- 
dish, looks  for  and  perhaps  finds  a  white  corpuscle,  and 
so  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  a  drop  of  blood  that 
he  sees. 

"In  the  three  instances  everything  is  the  same  except 
the  children.  The  differences  in  the  results  of  the  acts 
of  observation  must  be  due  to  the  differences  in  the 
minds  of  the  children.  The  reason  that  the  third  child 
saw  more  than  the  other  two  was  that  he  was  fitted 
by  previous  training  to  see  more.  In  order  that  we  may 
see  a  thing  properly  it  is  not  sufficient  that  rays  of  light 
should  come  from  the  object  to  the  eye  and  nerve  vibra- 
tions travel  along  the  optic  nerve  to  the  brain.  The 
mind  must  be  in  a  position  to  interpret,  to  understand 
these  vibrations.  To  sensations  coming  from  without 
the  mind  adds  imagination  (i.e.^  image-making)  work- 
ing from  within.  This  combination  of  action  of  object 
on  mind  and  the  reaction  of  mind  on  object  is  known  as 
apperception.^^ 

The  third  thing  to  notice  about  the  process  of  apper- 


APPEECEPTION  23 

ception  is  that  it  increases  our  knowledge  by  gradually 
adding  new  elements  to  pur  previous  store  of  experience. 
In  the  use  of  the  microscope,  as  cited  above,  ^acli  child 
added  to  its  store  of  knowledge  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  previous  training  which  could  be  brought  to 
bear  at  this  point.  The  first  child  had  had  no  previous 
training  in  this  or  in  any  related  work,  and  so  was 
unable  to  profit  by  this  experience.  He  did  not  focus 
his  eye  correctly,  and  could  not  direct  his  attention  to 
what  the  third  child  saw.  An  object,  event,  or  situation 
which  has  no  relation  to  our  previous  experience  fails  to 
attract  our  attention, — is  not  apperceived, — makes  no 
impression  on  us,  and  adds  nothing  to  our  store  of 
knowledge.  Nothing  is  regarded  worthy  of  our  con- 
sideration which  does  not  relate  itself  to  our  previous 
experience.  In  fact,  we  can  imagine  nothing  which  is 
out  of  relation  to  all  our  previous  experiences.  Things 
and  events  are  only  significant  in  so  far  as  they  signify 
relationships  which  we  know.  The  slight  difference 
between  the  letters  "O"  and  "Q"  is  immediately  noticed 
by  us,  but  would  not  be  seen  by  any  one  unfamiliar  with 
our  alphabet.  There  are  many  important  character- 
istics about  the  Chinese  alphabet  which  we  never  observe, 
because  they  mean  nothing  to  us.  They  are  unimportant 
for  us  because  they  do  not  unite  themselves  with  our 
previous  stock  of  ideas.  We  interpret  all  things  by  our 
own  standards  (our  stock  of  ideas) — we  observe  only 
those  things  which  have  significance  for  us,  we  increase 
our  store  of  ideas  not  by  adding  new  and  independent 
ones,  but  by  uniting  the  old  with  the  new.  We  are  not 
capable  of  forming  entirely  new  ideas,  but  must  con- 
tent ourselves  with  adding  new  elements  to  our  stock  in 
trade.  All  our  so-called  new  ideas  are  composed  very 
largely  of  old  elements. 


24       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

The  practical  importance  of  this  subject  for  the  ad- 
vertiser is  found  in  the  three  aspects  of  the  process  as 
discussed  above.  In  the  first  place,  some  advertisements- 
never  stand  out  clearly  and  distinctly  in  the  minds  of 
the  possible  customers.  We  may  turn  over  the  pages 
of  a  magazine  and  see  every  advertisement  there,  but 
our  seeing  may  be  of  the  sort  of  those  of  whom  it  was 
said,  "having  eyes  they  see  not.''  I  frequently  turn  over 
£he  pages  of  publications  and  direct  my  eyes  toward 
advertisements  and  hold  them  there  long  enough  to  have 
noticed  all  the  striking  characteristics  of  them,  and  yet 
in  ten  minutes  afterward  I  do  not  know  that  these  par- 
ticular advertisements  are  in  the  publication  at  all.  I 
had  perceived  them,  but  had  not  apperceived  them.  The 
designers  of  these  advertisements  had  not  been  success- 
ful in  concentrating  my  mind  on  any  particular  thing 
which  had  a  special  reference  to  my  previous  experience, 
and  which  would  therefore  be  apperceived  by  me. 

We  cannot  apperceive  a  large  number  of  things  at  the 
same  time.  An  advertisement  which  is  constructed 
upon  the  principle  that  all  parts  of  it  should  be  attrac- 
tive at  the  same  time  will  so  divide  the  attention  that 
no  part  of  it  will  stand  out  prominently,  and  so  it  will 
not  be  noticed  at  all.  A  superfluity  of  details  should  be 
strenuously  guarded  against  in  both  the  text  and  the 
illustration.  If  a  single  point  of  an  advertisement  is 
apperceived  it  serves  as  an  opening  wedge  for  the  entire 
advertisement.  If,  however,  there  are  too  many  details 
the  attention  may  be  so  distracted  that  none  of  it  will 
be  apperceived,  although  it  may  all  be  seen  (perceived). 
The  things  which  we  perceive  do  make  a  slight  impres- 
sion on  us,  but  they  are  so  unimportant  in  comparison 
with  the  things  that  we  apperceive  that  we  may  almost 
disregard  them  entirely. 


APPERCEPTION  25 

The  second  point  for  the  advertiser  to  consider  is  that 
the  apperception  value  (identical  with  attention  value 
in  this  case)  of  the  advertisement  does  not  depend  so 
much  on  what  the  reader  receives  from  the  advertise- 
ment, but  what  he  adds  to  it.  Your  advertisement  and 
all  other  printed  matter  is  composed  of  a  few  straight 
lines  and"  a  few  curved  ones,  of  a  few  dots,  and  perhaps 
one  or  more  colored  surfaces.  These,  when  seen,  cause 
a  sensation  of  sight,  but  that  is  the  smallest  part  of  the 
result  of  your  advertisement.  These  visual  sensations 
are  immediately  enforced  by  the  previous  experience  of 
the  reader.  The  value  of  your  advertisement  depends 
almost  entirely  on  the  number  and  kind  of  former  experi- 
ences which  it  awakens.  The  advertisement  is  not  a 
thing  which  contains  within  itself  the  reason  for  its  exist- 
ence. In  and  of  itself  it  is  perfectly  worthless.  The 
aim  of  the  advertisement  is  to  call  forth  activity  in  the 
minds  of  its  readers — and,  it  might  be  added,  action  of  a 
particular  sort.  The  advertisement  which  is  beautiful 
and  pleasing  to  its  designer,  and  which  begets  activity 
in  his  mind,  may  be  perfectly  worthless  as  an  advertise- 
ment. The  drop  of  blood  in  the  microscope  brought 
forth  no  activity  on  the  part  of  the  first  child  who  looked 
at  it,  as  cited  above.  The  child  had  nothing  in  its  former 
experience  which  was  suggested  by  the  appearance  of  the 
drop  of  blood,  and  so  it  was  not  interpreted  and  was  not 
connected  with  the  child's  former  life,  and  so  made  no 
impression  on  him.  That  which  happened  to  the  chil- 
dren in  looking  through  the  microscope  happens  every 
day  to  the  readers  of  advertisements.  The  same  adver- 
tisement will  call  forth  different  amounts  of  activity 
from  different  readers.  Some  advertisements  have  a 
meaning  to  those  who  are  well  acquainted  with  them, 
and  to  such  they  tell  their  story  accurately  and  quickly. 


26       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISIIS^G 

To  some  readers  they  tell  a  confused  or  erroneous  story ; 
to  others  they  have  nothing  to  tell  at  all.  As  an  example 
of  such  advertisements  we  have  reproduced  the  adver- 
tisement (No.  1)  of  Whitman's  chocolates. 


No.  1 


This  looks  like  a  very  neat  advertisement,  but  it  fails 
at  the  two  crucial  points — ^it  neither  attracts  attention 
nor  assists  in  forming  a  correct  perception  of  the  goods 
advertised.  As  a  proof  of  this  statement  it  is  but  neces- 
sary to  refer  to  the  result  obtained  with  this  advertise- 
ment in  a  series  of  tests  recently  made.     The  magazine 


APPERCEPTION  27 

containing  this  advertisement  was  shown  to  516  yonng 
people  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  twenty-five.  After 
they  had  looked  at  all  the  advertisements  they  were 
asked  to  write  down  all  the  advertisements  which  they 
had  noticed  and  could  remember.  One  girl  remembered 
that  she  had  seen  an  advertisement  of  candy,  but  could 
not  remember  whose  it  was  or  what  the  advertisement 
was.  One  boy  remembered  that  "Whitman^s  candy'^ 
was  advertised,  but  thought  the  advertisement  had  the 
picture  of  a  lady  eating  a  piece  of  candy.  The  first  of 
the  two  probably  referred  to  Huyler's  advertisement 
(Huyler  advertised  in  the  same  issue)  and  the  second 
certainly  confused  the  two  advertisements.  Besides 
these  two  none  of  the  516  persons  noticed  the  advertise- 
ment sufficiently  to  remember  that  it  was  there  at  all. 
This  second  advertisement  (No.  2)  of  Whitman's  ap- 
peared in  a  later  issue  of  the  same  magazine.  I  have 
made  no  tests  of  this  advertisement,  but  feel  sure  that  if 
the  516  had  seen  this  instead  of  the  other  advertisement 
a  very  large  per  cent,  of  them  would  have  noticed  it  and 
have  remembered  it.  It  attracts  attention  and  tells 
more  at  a  glance  than  could  be  told  in  many  well-formed 
sentences.  It  would  create  a  desire  on  the  part  of  many 
of  these  young  people  to  send  for  or  to  purchase  a  box 
of  such  desirable  looking  candy.  It  is  an  illustration 
which  illustrates  by  helping  perception,  and  it  also 
attracts  attention  because  it  has  something  to  tell. 

The  third  thing  for  the  advertiser  to  observe  in  connec- 
tion with  apperception  is  that  advancement  in  knowledge 
is  made  by  joining  the  new  on  to  the  old.  The  pedagogi- 
cal maxim  of  advancing  from  the  known  to  the  unknown 
finds  its  justification  here. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  get  the  public  to  think  along  a 
new  line,  because  they  cannot  connect  th^  new  fact  with 


28       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

their  previous  experience,  i.e.,  they  cannot  apperceive 
it.  This  makes  it  very  difficult  to  introduce  a  new 
article  on  the  market.  Old  firms  find  it  difficult  to 
introduce  a  new  brand,  and  new  firms  find  it  difficult 


No.  2 


to  get  themselves  noticed  at  all.  Frequently  firms  have 
resorted  to  questionable  means  to  get  the  public  even 
to  notice  them.  It  seems  to  be  impossible  for  them  to 
get  a  hearing  for  the  details  of  their  propositions  until 
they  have  let  the  public  become  familiar  with  their 


APPERCEPTION  29 

names  and  know  who  they  are.  The  promoters  of  Omega 
Oil  have  been  severely  criticised  for  their  goose,  but  the 
goose  has  introduced  them  to  the  public,  and  now  they 
are  in  a  position  to  get  a  hearing  and  to  present  the 
arguments  for  their  commodity.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  the  expense  of  keeping  the  goose  before  the  public 
was  an  unnecessary  luxury,  but  they  have  been  wise 
in  not  advancing  their  argument  faster  than  the  public 
was  willing  to  hear  it.  They  have  taken  but  one  step  at 
a  time.  They  first  let  the  public  know  that  there  was 
such  a  thing  as  Omega  Oil,  and  they  took  great  pains 
to  make  this  new  fact  known,  and  in  doing  this  they 
were  acting  in  accordance  wdth  the  principles  of  apper- 
ception. They  first  gave  the  public  some  experience  of 
Omega  Oil,  and  then  tried  to  get  the  public  to  interpret 
their  arguments  in  the  light  of  tha*t  previous  experience. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  or  even  wise  to  attempt 
to  present  all  the  arguments  for  a  commodity  at  a  single 
time.  It  is  frequently  wise  to  carry  on  an  educational 
campaign  and  to  present  single  arguments.  In  this  way 
the  mind  of  the  possible  customer  is  not  crowded  with  a 
lot  of  new  and  disconnected  facts,  but  each  argument 
has  time  to  be  assimilated  and  to  form  a  part  of  his 
experience,  and  is  called  up  to  strengthen  and  impress 
each  succeeding  argument. 

In  writing  an  advertisement  the  public  to  be  reached 
must  be  carefully  studied.  In  exploiting  a  new  com- 
modity the  writer  should  ask  himself  what  there  is  about 
his  goods  which  will  fall  into  "prepared  soil'^  on  the 
part  of  the  reader.  The  reader  must  first  be  appealed 
to  by  something  which  he  already  knows,  and  thus 
activity  on  his  part  is  awakened,  and  this  activity  may 
be  made  use  of  for  presenting  the  new  elements,  which, 
if  presented  at  first,  would  have  met  with  no  response 


30       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

whatever/  Nothing  should  be  presented  as  something 
absolutely  new,  but  as  an  improvement  or  substitute 
for  something  which  is  well  known.  The  reader's 
interest  can  be  best  awakened  by  appealing  to  his  past 
experiences. 


ILLUSIONS  OF  PERCEPTION  31 


IV 

ILLUSIONS  OF  PERCEPTION 

If  there  is  anything  in  the  world  that  we  feel  snre 
of,  it  is  that  our  senses  (eyes,  ears,  etc.)  do  not  deceive 
us,  but  that  they  present  the  outside  world  to  us  just 
as  it  is.  Some  have  been  so  impressed  with  the  truth- 
fulness of  their  senses  that  they  have  discredited  all 
other  sources  of  knowledge  and  are  unwilling  to  accept 
anything  as  true  which  they  cannot  see.  "Seeing  is 
believing,"  and  nothing  is  so  convincing  as  our  percep- 
tions. 

Many  centuries  ago  it  was  discovered  that  under  cer- 
tain conditions  even  our  senses  deceived  us.  This  dis- 
covery was  emphasized  and  the  certainty  of  any  and  all 
our  knowledge  was  questioned  till  the  extremest  sort 
of  skepticism  prevailed.  Such  a  condition  was  abnor- 
mal and  transient,  but  it  certainly  is  a  great  shock  to  us 
when  we  discover  that  under  certain  conditions  our 
senses  are  not  to  be  depended  upon. 

All  the  sense  organs  are  the  product  of  a  long  evolu- 
tion in  which  the  various  organs  were  developed  as 
instruments  of  communication  by  means  of  which  we 
might  adjust  ourselves  to  our  environments.  Of  all  the 
sense  organs  the  eye  is  the  most  highly  developed,  and 
yet  it  was  not  one  of  the  first  to  be  developed.  It  is 
marvelously  well  adjusted  for  the  functions  which  it 
has  to  perform,  but  it  has  certain  weaknesses  and  de- 
fects which  are  surprising. 

Although  each  of  the  sense  organs  is  a  source  of 


32       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

illusion,  this  chapter  will  be  confined  to  a  presentation 
of  some  of  the  most  striking  illusions  of  the  eye. 

One  of  the  most  glaring  of  the  so-called  "optical 
illusions"  is  the  illusion  as  to  the  length  of  lines.  We 
judge  distances  by  the  amount  of  eye  movement  which 
is  necessary  to  look  from  one  extremity  of  the  line  to 
the  other.  Under  some  circumstances  this  eye  move- 
ment is  facilitated  and  under  others  it  is  retarded. 
Lines  or  distances  over  which  the  eye  moves  readily  are 
underestimated,  while  those  over  which  the  eye  moves 
with  difficulty  are  overestimated. 

< > 

>— < 


No.  1 


No.  1  shows  two  lines  of  equal  length.  The  line  at 
the  top  seems  much  shorter  and  the  explanation  is  as 
given  above.  The  arrowheads  which  are  turned  in  stop 
the  eye  movement  before  the  end  of  the  line  is  reached. 
The  arrowheads  which  are  turned  out  invite  the  eye  to 
go  even  further  than  the  end  of  the  line.  I  have  con- 
ducted experiments  with  very  finely  constructed  instru- 
ments which  showed  that  as  I  looked  at  the  bottom  line 
my  eye  moved  further  than  it  did  when  I  looked  at  the 
upper  line. 

When  out  walking,  we  are  inclined  to  judge  the  dis- 
tance traversed  by  the  amount  of  effort  we  have  put 
forth  in  covering  the  distance.  Any  one  who  has  had 
occasion  to  walk  on  railroad  ties  knows  that  the  dis- 
tance  which   he   thought   he   had   covered   was   much 


ILLUSIONS  OF  PERCEPTION  33 

greater  than  the  distance  which  he  had  actually  cov- 
ered. In  walking  on  the  railroad  ties,  every  tie  must 
be  noticed  and  its  distance  from  the  next  tie  must  be 
roughly  estimated.  There  is  a  constant  starting  and 
stopping  which  calls  for  the  putting  forth  of  an  exces- 
sive amount  of  energy.  When  we  walk  over  a  smooth 
and  well-known  path  there  is  no  starting  and  stopping 
at  all,  but  movement  is  continuous  and  easy.  In  the 
case  of  these  walks  the  distance  covered  is  judged  ac- 
cording to  the  amount  of  energy  which  the  limbs  must 
put  forth  to  cover  the  distance.  A  similar  illusion  oc- 
curs when  the  eye  is  called  upon  to  judge  of  distances 
which,  roughly  speaking,  correspond  to  the  railroad  ties 
and  the  smooth  path. 

In  No.  2  the  extents  indicated  by  A  and  B  are  equal. 
A  is  an  open  space  bounded  by  two  dots,  and  the  eye 


C 


lllllllllll 


tiiinmiim      ^      imiiiimiiii 

No.  2 

moves  over  it  readily  and  without  any  delays.  B  is  a 
space  bounded  by  two  dots  broken  by  three  others,  and, 
although  the  eye  seems  to  run  over  them  smoothly,  there 
is  a  slight  tendency  to  notice  each  dot,  and  this  stopping 
and  starting  at  each  dot  requires  more  energy  than  it 
does  to  move  the  eye  over  an  empty  space  of  the  same 
size.  As  seen'  extents  are  estimated  according  to  the 
amount  of  energy  necessary  to  move  the  eye  over  them, 
B  is  judged  to  be  greater  than  A.     The  other  illusions 


34       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

shown  in  No.  2  are  explained  in  the  same  way — C  ap- 
pears much  shorter  than  D,  and  F  appears  much  shorter 
than  E  or  G. 

In  No.  3  the  two  squares  are  of  eqjial  size,  but  the 
left-hand  one  appears  to  be  much  the  larger.  As  the 
eye  passes  over  the  left  square  there  is  a  tendency  to 
stop  at  each  cross  line,  and  these  stoppings  and  start- 
ings  cause  us  to  overestimate  the  size  of  the  square. 

Nos.  2  and  3  are  but  a  few  of  the  examples  which 
might  be  given  to  show  that  filled  space  is  overestimated 
and  that  empty  space  is  underestimated.    In  every  case 


No.  3 


the  cause  of  the  illusion  is  found  in  the  fact  that  we 
base  our  estimation  of  extents  upon  the  eye  movements 
which  are  necessary  to  look  over  the  field  or  extent 
being  estimated. 

All  eye  movements  are  made  by  means  of  the  three 
pairs  of  muscles  which  are  attached  to  each  eye.  They 
are  so  adjusted  that  they  can  move  the  eye  in  any  direc- 
tion, but  the  pairs  of  muscles  are  not  symmetrically 
placed,  and  as  a  natural  consequence  it  is  harder  to 
move  the  eyes  in  certain  directions  than  in  others.  If 
you  move  your  eyes  from  right  to  left  and  from  left  to 
right,  you  will  observe  that  it  is  much  easier  than  it  is 
to  move  them  up  and  down.  Our  conclusion  from  this 
would  be  that  if  we  judge  distances  by  eye  movement, 


ILLUSIONS  OF  PERCEPTION 


35 


we  would  overestimate  vertical  distances  and  under- 
estimate horizontal  distances.    Such  is  the  case. 

In  No.  4  the  horizontal  and  vertical  lines  are  equal, 
but  to  most  persons  the  vertical  line  appears  longer.    A 


No.  4 


square  does  not  look  to  be  square,  but  looks  as  if  its 
vertical  sides  were  longer  than  its  horizontal  ones. 

No.  5  combines  several  different  causes  of  illusions, 
and  the  result  is  very  striking.  Measurements  made 
along  the  dotted  lines  show  the  horizontal  line  to  be 
about  one-sixth  longer  than  the  vertical  line.  The  ex- 
planation of  this  illusion  is  more  difficult  to  find  than 
that  of  the  figures  above  given,  but  it  is  quite  certain 
that  all  the  explanations  given  above  apply  here,  and 
in  addition  we  must  mention  the  "error  of  expectancy." 
We  expect  to  see  the  horizontal  arms  of  a  cross  shorter 
than  the  height  of  it,  and  so  we  are  inclined  to  see  it 
that  way  even  when  the  reverse  is  true.  The  error  of 
expectancy  will  be  more  fully  discussed  in  the  next 
chapter. 


36       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

In  certain  positions  straight  lines  look  crooked  and 
crooked  ones  look  straight. 


No.  5 


No.  6  shows  straight  lines  which  seem  to  be  decidedly 
warped.  The  four  horizontal  lines  are  two  pairs  of 
straight  and  parallel  lines.      The  explanation  of  this 


^^^^^  j//^^^^^^^^^^^ 

^n^^^^^mr 

:^^^^^^^^/ ^^^^\ 

No.  6 


ILLUSIONS  OF  PERCEPTION  37 

illusion  is  that  we  underestimate  the  size  of  large  angles 
and  overestimate  the  size  of  small  ones.  Each  horizon- 
tal line  is  crossed  by  a  number  of  oblique  lines  and  each 
oblique  line  forms  two  acute  and  two  obtuse  angles  with 
each  horizontal  line.  As  we  overestimate  the  size  of 
the  acute  angles  and  underestimate  the  size  of  the  large 
ones,  the  straight  lines  must  appear  crooked  to  allow 
for  these  misjudgments. 

In  certain  positions  figures  which  are  the  same  size 
may  appear  to  be  very  far  from  being  equal. 


No.  7 

No.  7  shows  two  identical  figures,  but  the  lower  one 
appears  to  be  much  smaller  than  the  upper  one.  The 
explanation  of  this  illusion  is  somewhat  different  from 
the  explanation  of  the  other  illusions  as  given  above. 
In  comparing  the  size  of  two  objects  we  ordinarily  judge 
by  the  comparative  size  of  adjoining  areas.  In  the 
figures  shown  the  large  side  of  one  is  next  to  the  small 
side  of  the  other.  We  involuntarily  compare  these  ad- 
joining sides,  and  so  the  illusion  occurs. 

There  is  another  class  of  illusions  which  do  not  depend 
upon  eye  movement,  but  upon  the  way  the  different  rays 
of  light  affect  the  retina  of  the  eye.  We  "see"  objects 
when  the  rays  of  light  reflected  from  them  fall  upon 


38       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISING 

the  retina  of  the  eye.  From  large  objects  more  light  is 
reflected  than  from  small  objects.  Because  of  this  we 
have  come  to  judge  objects  not  only  from  the  eye  move- 
ment, but  also  from  the  size  of  the  object  as  it  is  reflected 
upon  the  eye.  The  rays  of  light  reflected  from  some 
colors  spread  themselves  out,  or  "irradiate,''  and  so  the 
image  of  the  object  as  it  is  reflected  in  the  eye  is 
greater  than  the  image  of  an  object  of  the  same  size 
but  of  a  color  which  does  not  irradiate.  For  this 
reason  white  objects  appear  larger  than  black  ones. 
The  stock  buyers  of  the  West  are  often  compelled  to 
guess  at  the  weight  of  animals.  I  am  told  that  they 
always, reduce  their  "guess"  on  white  animals  and  add 
to  the  apparent  size  (fl  black  ones.  Nor  is  this  illusion 
confined  to  white  and  black.  Red,  orange,  and  yellow 
objects  look  larger  than  objects  of  the  same  size  which 
are  green  and  blue.  Corpulent  people  dress  themselves 
in  black  or  in  the  darker  shades  of  blue  or  green.  Small, 
thin  people  dress  in  white,  red,  orange,  or  yellow. 

Another  source  of  errors  is  found  in  the  fact  which, 
technically  expressed,  is  that  the  eye  is  not  corrected 
for  chromatic  aberration.  The  result  of  this  defect  in 
the  eye  is  that  certain  colors  look  closer  than  others. 
Thus  red  objects  look  closer  than  green  ones.  I  remem- 
ber looking  at  a  church  window  which  had  a  red  disk 
in  a  green  background.  The  red  appeared  to  stand  out 
from  the  green  in  such  a  remarkable  manner  that  I  was 
not  satisfied  till,  after  the  service  was  over,  I  went  to 
the  window  and  felt  of  it.  The  red  and  the  green  were 
in  the  same  plane,  but,  as  the  red  might  have  stood  out, 
the  illusion  was  not  counteracted  by  my  knowledge  of 
the  perspective  and  was  very  striking. 

Tailors  and  dressmakers  have  taken  advantage  of 
some  of  the  sources  of  illusions  as  given  above.     They 


ILLUSIONS  OF  PERCEPTION  39 

know  how  to  cover  defects  and  to  produce  the  desired 
appearances.  Corpulent  ladies  are  not  found  wearing 
checks,  nor  are  tall  ladies  in  the  habit  of  wearing  verti- 
cal stripes.  As  far  as  the  writer  knows,  advertisers 
have  never  made  a  conscious  effort  to  profit  by  illusions 
in  their  illustrations  and  construction  of  display.  It  is 
not  the  function  of  this  article  to  suggest  how  the  prin- 
ciples here  enunciated  might  be  applied  to  any  particu- 
lar concrete  case,  but  the  ingenious  advertiser  will  find 
the  application.  The  Purina  Mills  put  up  their  goodc 
in  checkerboard  packages,  which  make  the  packages 
look  larger  than  they  really  are.  This  illusion  is  illus- 
trated in  No.  3.  Ordinarily  the  illustration  in  advertise- 
ments of  fountain  pens  represents  the  pen  in  a  horizon- 
tal position.  I  have  recently  noticed  some  of  the  illus- 
trations in  which  the  pen  is  represented  in  a  vertical 
position.  This  makes  the  pen  look  larger,  as  is  indi- 
cated in  No.  4. 

If  the  designer  of  an  advertisement  desires  to  give  the 
impression  of  bigness  to  an  article  which  he  is  present- 
ing, he  might  make  use  of  some  or  all  of  the  illusions 
given  above.  The  cut  of  the  article  might  be  so  con- 
structed that  the  eye  would  move  completely  over  it  or 
even  beyond  it,  as  is  shown  in  the  lower  figure  of  No.  1. 
It  might  be  of  such  a  nature  that  the  eye  would  not 
move  over  it  readily,  as  is  the  case  with  B,  D,  E,  and  G 
in  No.  2.  It  might  be  checkered  like  the  left-hand  square 
of  No.  3.  It  might  have  its  dimensions  indicated  by 
vertical  and  not  by  horizontal  lines.  It  might  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  error  of  expectation,  as  is  shown  in  No. 
5.  Its  size  might  be  made  to  appear  greater  by  the  in- 
troduction of  acute  angles,  as  is  shown  in  No.  6,  in  which 
the  distance  between  the  two  parallel  lines  is  increased 
and  decreased  by  acute  and  obtuse  angles.     The  cut 


40       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

might  be  brought  into  contrast  with  some  other  figure 
which  would  give  the  impression  of  great  size,  as  is 
done  in  the  upper  figure  of  No.  7.  Finally,  the  part  of 
the  cut  which  is  to  look  large  might  be  colored  red, 
orange,  yellow,  or  white.  If  several  of  these  principles 
of  illusions  could  be  employed  in  a  single  cut  the  effect 
would  be  astonishing. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  cause  of  all  illusions  of  perception 
is  found  in  some  maladjustment  of  our  normal  sense  or- 
gans. The  advertiser  is  perfectly  justified  in  taking 
advantage  of  this  defect  of  ours,  and  in  some  cases  this 
could  be  done  to  advantage. 


ILLUSIONS  OF  APPERCEPTION  41 


ILLUSIONS  OF  APPERCEPTION 

In  Evanston,  Illinois,  two  grocery  firms  are  accus- 
tomed to  advertise  on  hand-bills  which  are  placed  in 
the  morning  papers  before  they  are  delivered  by  the 
carriers.  A  friend  of  mine,  who  was  the  head  of  a 
family,  had  frequently  noticed  these  bills  in  his  morn- 
ing paper  and,  having  noticed  at  some  time  the  name  of 
"Robinson  Brothers"  on  que  of  the  advertisements, 
had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  all  these  hand-bills 
were  from  Robinson  Brothers.  On  a  certain  morning 
Winter's  Grocery  offered  to  sell  several  lines  of  stand- 
ard goods  at  a  very  great  reduction  from  the  ordinary 
price.  As  my  friend  was  going  down  town  that  morn- 
ing his  wife  handed  him  the  hand-bill  and  asked  him 
to  order  quite  an  extensive  quantity  of  the  special  bar- 
gains offered  that  morning.  He  took  the  advertisement, 
checked  off  what  his  wife  wanted,  and  went  down  town. 
As  he  entered  Robinson  Brothers'  store  he  held  Winter's 
advertisement  in  his  hand  and  read  off  to  the  clerk 
the  order  which  he  was  commissioned  to  make.  When 
the  goods  were  delivered  he  was  taken  to  task  by  his 
wife  for  ordering  the  goods  at  the  wrong  store  and 
thereby  failing  to  save  the  special  reductions  for  that 
day.  It  so  happened  that  the  advertisement  was  still 
in  his  pocket.  As  he  took  it  out  and  looked  at  it  again 
he  was  very  much  surprised  to  see  "Winter's  Grocery" 
in  plain  type  at  the  bottom.  It  was  not  comforting  to 
him  either  to  remember  the  w^ay  the  clerk  had  smiled 
when  he  had  held  the  advertisement  in  his  hand  and 


42       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

ordered  the  goods.  He  even  believed  he  remembered 
that  the  cashier  stopped  work  and  scanned  him  and 
the  advertisement  while  the  order  was  being  given. 

In  the  reduced  reproduction   (No.  1)   of  a  full-page 
advertisement,  which  appeared  in  Everybody's  Maga- 


■'^SS» 


ELASTIC  PiBBED 

Union  Suits 


1 

The  Muiisiiiff  Indefweaf 

f,i\ei  a  mjMnjum  of  co-nfort 
jt  a  niininium  of  expense, 
t  otibmes  perfect  on  of  fit  and  S-ish    , 
*  -H  Tinsomblcn'if  of  p-K'      Thf  •«  Is    - 
'o  r-h.r  biph  r'^ic  unJc  atarso  inc< 

S^r'O 

[  .p^  •;£i;3i 

1 

sWi  ''      ■   ':'/■ 

J 

WMBw^  ^i^liWs&Vi^OI'ftif''  1^ 

No.  1 


2ine,  the  Oneita  goods  occupied  three-fourths  of  the 
page  and  the  Munsing  goods  one-fourth.  It  seems  that 
there  should  be  no  confusion  about  this,  but  such  has 
not  been  the  case.  The  Munsing  people  received  a  num- 
ber of  letters  of  inquiry  concerning  the  Oneita  union 
suits.     For  persons  desiring  union  suits  this  full-page 


ILLUSIONS  OF  APPERCEPTION  43 

advertisement  was  all  supposed  to  be  an  advertisement 
issuing  from  the  manufacturers  of  the  Munsing  under- 
wear. An  advertising  manager  of  a  progressive  maga- 
zine saw^  this  page  and,  like  many  other  readers,  sup- 
posed that  it  was  all  one.  He  wrote  to  the  Munsing 
people,  making  them  rates  on  the  full-page  advertise- 
ment, and  enclosed  the  page  from  which  the  half-tone 
was  made  as  shown  above. 

Confusions  often  arise  between  advertisements  which 
present  the  most  dissimilar  kinds  of  goods.  It  might 
seem  surprising  that  the  advertisements  for  portable 
houses  should  be  confused  with  the  advertisement  of 
pens,  but  the  following  illustration  will  show  how 
naturally  such  an  error  could  occur : 

In  the  reduced  reproduction  of  the  full-page  adver- 
tisement (No.  2)  the  Conklin  Pen  Company  occupies 
the  upper  right-hand  quarter  page  and  the  lower  left- 
hand  quarter  page.  The  upper  right-hand  quarter  is 
of  such  a  nature  that  it  arrests  the  reader's  attention 
as  he  turns  over  the  page.  It  is  of  such  an  indefinite 
nature  that  it  does  not  direct  the  attention  to  anything 
in  particular,  but  merely  arrests  it  and  causes  one  to 
look  dowm.  It  does  not  draw  attention  .to  the  lower 
left-hand  quarter  more  than  it  does  to  the  lower  right- 
hand  quarter.  Under  these  circumstances  the  lower 
quarter  which  appeals  to  the  reader  the  most  strongly 
receives  the  most  attention.  We  may  for  the  present 
assume  that  the  two  lower  quarters  are  equally  attrac- 
tive. Under  these  circumstances  it  will  depend  upon 
the  reader  himself  as  to  whether  he  will  see  the  port- 
able houses  or  the  pens.  If  he  has  been  thinking  of 
portable  houses — if  he  wants  a  portable  house — ^his 
attention  will  immediately  be  attracted  by  the  adver- 
tisement of  Mershon  &  Morley,  and  he  will  take  it  for 


44       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

granted  that  Merslion  &  Morley  have  used  the  entire 
right-hand  half  of  the  page.  This  conclusion  is  not 
merely  hypothetical,  for  Mershon  &  Morley  have  positive 
proof  as  to  very  many  such  confusions  and  they  are 
of  the  opinion  that  they  have  received  as  much  benefit 


No.  2 


from  the  upper  right-hand  quarter  as  the  Conklin  Pen 
Company  has. 

Department  store  advertising  lead^  to  very  many  more 
illusions  of  apperception  than  are  ordinarily  detected. 
Mandel  Brothers  of  Chicago  advertised  a  special  brand 
of  writing  paper  one  morning  and  during  the  day  Mar- 


ILLUSIONS  OF  APPERCEPTION  45 

shall  Field  &  Company  received  forty  orders  for  this 
brand  from  people  who  believed  that  Field's  and  not 
MandePs  were  advertising  it.  Field's  roughly  estimated 
that  they  receive  as  many  as  thirty  orders  weekly  which 
are  known  to  be  due  to  illusions  of  apperception  in  which 
Field's  receive  the  benefit  of  competitors  advertising. 

Of  two  hat  firms  of  Chicago  one  puts  great  emphasis 
on  its  own  name  and  address,  the  other  emphasizes  the 
style  of  the  hat  sold.  For  convenience'  sake  we  shall 
call  the  first  firm  "A"  and  the  second  ^^B."  Hatter  A 
has  made  his  name  so  well  known  that  when  a  possible 
customer  sees  an  advertisement  of  hats  he  at  once  begins 
to  think  of  A.  Last  summer  Hatter  B  advertised  a 
particular  style  of  hat  very  extensively.  His  name  was 
on  all  the  advertisements,  of  course.  The  name,  how- 
ever, was  not  the  important  or  the  emphasized  thing. 
After  they  had  read  the  advertisement  through  many 
persons  still  supposed  that  it  w^as  A's  advertisement. 
Hatter  A  is  not  willing  to  have  his  name  or  that  of 
his  competitor  mentioned,  for  he  does  not  desire  to 
see  the  present  condition  changed.  His  position  can  be 
appreciated  when  w^e  learn  that  he  sold  over  twenty 
dozen  hats  last  summer  to  persons  who  thought  they 
were  getting  tlie  hat  which  they  had  seen  advertised 
by  B. 

I  have  frequently  observed  that  people  misread  ad- 
vertisements. In  some  cases  the  mistakes  are  astonish- 
ing. After  a  young  lady  had  completed  "looking 
through"  a  magazine,  I  asked  her  to  write  down  as  full 
an  account  as  possible  of  some  of  the  advertisements 
in  the  magazine.  Here  is  what  she  wrote:  "What  sen- 
sations are  more  agreeable  after  exercise  than  a  hard 
rub  with  a  towel  and  a  rub  with  Armour's  toilet  soap, 
and  a  dash  of  water?    Armour's  soap  may  not  be  very 


46       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

valuable,  but  it  is  very  refreshing  after  exercise. 
Armour's  soap  may  be  bought  at  any  store  at  five  or 
ten  cents  a  bar."  What  she  had  read  was  the  following : 
"What  sensations  are  more  agreeable  than  those  follow- 
ing some  good,  quick  exercise,  a  rub  with  a  rough  towel, 
a  scrub  with  Ivor}^  soap  and  a  dash  of  cold  water?  .  .  . 
If  the  Ivory  soap  is  not  positively  essential,  it  is  at 
least  delightfully  cleansing,"  etc.  I  asked  several  hun- 
dred persons  to  write  down  a  description  of  the  adver- 
tisements which  they  had  just  read.  This  confusion 
of  Armour's  and  Ivory  soap  is  but  one  of  scores  of  simi- 
lar confusions  w^hich  I  discovered. 

At  an  international  congress  of  psychologists  held  in 
Munich,  in  1896,  an  alleged  "photograph"  of  the  human 
brain  (No.  3)  was  exhibited. 


No.  3 


All  those  present  were  much  interested  in  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  brain.  Many  of 
them,  at  first  sight,  saw  nothing  unusual  about  the 
picture,  but  observed  the  position  of  the  various 
convolutions  and  fissures  of  the  brain.  Later  it 
dawned  upon  them  that  it  was  not  a  photograph  of 
the  brain  at  all,  but  was  a  group  of  naked  babies.  I 
have  since  that  time  shown  the  picture  to  various  per- 


ILLUSIONS  OF  APPERCEPTION  47 

sons  and  have  noticed  that  those  who  are  familiar  with 
the  brain  first  see  a  brain,  but  other  persons  are  likely 
to  see  the  babies  at  once. 

The  first  time  I  saw  this  photograph  of  a  brain  I  did 
not  notice  the  babies  for  several  seconds ;  then  for  some 
time  I  could  see  it  as  either  a  brain  or  a  group  of  babies. 
Now  I  find  that  I  cannot  see  it  as  a  brain  at  all,  but 
every  time  I  look  at  it  I  see  the  babies  and  there  is 
scarcely  any  resemblance  to  a  brain  there. 

The  following  cut  (No.  4)  differs  from  the  one  last 
discussed  in  this  particular.  I  can  see  it  equally  well 
in  two  different  ways. 


No.  4 
\ 

If  I  look  away  from  it  and  think  how  it  should  be  to 
represent  a  duck  and  then  turn  my  eyes  upon  it,  behold 
— it  is  a  duck.  If  I  think  how  it  should  be  to  represent 
a  rabbit  and  then  look  at  it,  it  ceases  to  look  like  a 
duck  and  is  the  likeness  of  a  rabbit.  The  figure  itself 
may  represent  equally  well  either  a  rabbit  or  a  duck, 
but  cannot  possibly  suggest  both  to  me  at  the  same 
time.  If  I  continue  to  look  at  it  steadily  for  some 
minutes  it  changes  from  a  rabbit  to  a  duck  and  then 
back  to  a  rabbit.  When  I  see  it  as  one  it  does  not  seem 
possible  that  it  could  ever  look  like  the  other,  for  the 
two  things  are  so  totally  different  in  appearance. 

The  following  illustration  (No.  5)  differs  from  the 
one  given  immediately  above  in  several  important  par- 


48       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

ticulars.  The  one  given  above  is  seen  equally  well  in 
either  of  two  ways,  and  we  seem  to  have  no  preference 
as  to  which  way  we  shall  see  it.  The  one  given  below 
can  be  seen  in  at  least  four  different  ways,  but  we 
see  it  much  more  readily  in  one  way  than  in  any  other. 


No.  5 


The  easiest  way  to  interpret  this  figure  is  to  regard 
it  as  a  representation  of  a  staircase  as  seen  from  above. 
It  is  quite  possible,  however,  to  see  it  as  a  representation 
of  the  same  stairs  as  seen  from  below.  This  latter  in- 
terpretation is  made  easier  if  you  think  just  how  the 
stairs  would  look  if  seen  from  below,  and  if  at  the  same 
time  you  direct  your  eye  to  the  point  marked  "a"  in  the 
cut.  It  is  possible  to  interpret  the  cut,  not  as  a  staircase 
at  all,  but  as  a  strip  of  cardboard  bent  at  right  angles 
like  an  accordion  plait  and  situated  in  front  of  the 
apparent  background.  It  is  difficult  to  "see"  the  figure 
this  way.  It  is  still  more  difficult  to  see  the  figure 
as  a  plane  surface  composed  of  straight  lines  without 
any  perspective.  This  fourth  interpretation  is  the  one 
that  would  apparently  be  the  most  natural,  for  it  is  the 
one  which  takes  the  cut  for  just  what  it  is  and  adds 
nothing  to  it.  It  might  be  added  that  the  angles  in  the 
staircase  figure  may  be  seen  as  right  angles,  acute  angles, 
or  oblique  angles. 


ILLUSIO:&^S  OF  APPERCEPTION 


49 


No.  6  is  like  the  previous  illustrations  in  that  it  can 
be  seen  in  more  than  one  way,  but  it  is  different  in  that 
the  figure  seems  to  change  under  the  eye  more  rapidly 


No.  6 

than  the  others.  It  assumes  two  or  three  different  ap- 
pearances in  a  very  few  seconds. 

These  changes  are  assisted  by  moving  the  eye  from 
one  part  of  the  figure  to  another.  In  looking  at  solid 
figures  or  bodies  our  eyes  usually  rest  on  the  nearest 
edge  or  surface.  It  comes  about  in  this  way  that  the 
lines  at  which  we  look  are  very  likely  to  appear  to  be 
the  nearest  edge  or  surface  of  the  solid. 

No.  7  consists  of  a  group  of  either  six  or  seven  blocks. 
If  it  is  looked  at  steadily  for  some  seconds,  the  blocks 
seem  to  fall  and  to  arrange  themselves  in  a  new  way. 


50       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

If  at  first  there  were  but  six  blocks,  there  may  be  seven 
there  after  they  have  fallen.  Many  people  find  it  very 
difficult  to  count  the  blocks,  for  while  they  are  counting, 
the  number  chiJUges.     If  you  look  at  No.  7a  and  hold 


No.  7 


an  image  of 'it  in  your  mind  while  you  count  the  blocks 
in  No.  7  you  will  probably  find  six  blocks.  If,  however, 
3^ou  first  look  at  No.  7&  and  retain  its  image  in  your  mind 
you  will  be  able  to  find  seven  blocl^s  in  No.  7.     If  the 


No.  7a 


No.  7b 


desired  results  are  not  secured,  turn  the  page  upside- 
down  and  the  blocks  will  then  certainly  '^fall." 

No.  8,  at  first  sight,  appears  to  most  people  as  a  book 
which  is  half  opened  and  turned  in  such  a  way  that  the 


ILLUSIONS  OF  APPERCEPTION 


51 


cover  alone  is  visible.  To  some  it  will  appear  as  if 
the  book  was  opened  toward  them  and  as  if  two  of  the 
pages  w^ere  visible.  If  we  try  to  think  how  a  book 
should  look  when  opened  and  turned  away  from  us,  and 
if  we  then  look  at  the  figure,  it  will  appear  to  represent 
the  book  of  which  we  are  thinking  and  also  in  the  posi- 
tion in  which  we  imagined  it. 

The  upper  or  feathered  end  of  the  arrow  (No.  9)  is 
identical  with  No.  8  and  yet  it  appears  to  be  flat,  while 


W 


No.  S 


V 


No.  9 


that  one  appeared  as  a  solid.  If  we  cover  up  the  shaft 
and  head  of  the  arrow  as  shown  in  this  figure,  we  can 
then  see  the  top  of  the  figure  as  a  book.  If  we  think 
of  it  as  the  end  of  an  arrow  it  is  flat,  but  if  we  think 
of  it  as  a  book  it  immediately  appears  as  a  solid  drawn 
in  perspective. 

If  I  put  on  red  glasses  and  then  look  at  a  landscape, 
all  objects  appear  red  to  me.  If  I  put  on  green  glasses 
all  objects  appear  green.  The  objects  are  colored  by  the 
glasses  which  were  before  my  eyes.  In  a  similar  way, 
by  apperception,  the  thoughts  which  are  in  my  mind 
color  all  the  objects  at  ivhich  I  looh.     We  see  things 


52       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

through  our  own  eyes  and  with  our  own  minds.  This 
is  equivalent  to  saying  that  all  we  see  is  changed  by  the 
thoughts  which  are  in  our  minds  when  we  look.  It  is 
also  equivalent  to  saying  that  we  see  everything  in  rela- 
tion to  our  own  previous  experience.  Although  the 
grass  is  green  I  am  unable  to  see  it  as  green  till  I  remove 
the  red  glasses.  The  rose  may  be  red,  but  it  will  not 
appear  so  to  me  till  I  take  off  the  green  glasses.  In  a 
similar  way  I  fail  to  see  the  green  grass  when  I  am 
thinking  of  the  red  rose  and  I  fail  to  see  the  red  rose 
when  I  am  thinking  of  the  green  grass,  although  both  are 
present  all  the  time.  We  see  most  easily  those  things 
of  which  we  happen  to  he  thinking  or  of  which  we  have 
had  previous  experience,  hut  we  see  with  difficulty  those 
things  of  which  we  have  had  no  previous  experience. 

For  the  practical  advertiser  the  theoretical  discus 
sion  of  the  illusions  of  apperception  has  a  special  im- 
portance, as  it  assists  him  to  discern  the  causes  of  sucli 
illusions  and  to  avoid  them  in  his  advertisements.  The 
principal  cause  of  all  illusions  of  apperception  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  mind  of  the  reader  is  not  prepared 
for  the  reception  of  the  case  as  presented.  The  second 
cause  of  such  illusions  is  that  the  presentation  of  the 
case  is  not  as  clear  and  distinct  as  it  should  be.  The 
first  of  these  facts  is  the  peculiar  and  distinctive  cause 
of  most  illusions  of  apperception.  The  reader's  mind 
may  be  unprepared  either  because  it  is  distracted  by 
a  competing  thought  or  because  the  material  presented 
is  entirely  new.  The  presentation  may  be  lacking  in 
clearness  because  in  some  particular  it  is  ambiguous. 

By  observing  the  part  which  these  two  causes  played 
in  the  illusions  given  above  we  are  better  prepared  to 
understand  and  therefore  to  avoid  such  illusions.  The 
householder  who  misread  Robinson  for  Winter  had  his 


ILLUSIONS  OF  APPERCEPTION  53 

mind  preoccupied  with  the  thought  of  Robinson.  Winter 
had  not  succeeded  in  occupying  a  place  in  his  mind, 
while  Robinson  had.  On  the  other  hand,  Robinson's 
and  Winter's  advertisements  look  as  much  alike  as  two 
peas  and  neither  has  a  characteristic  feature  which 
would  help  to  identify  it. 

The  readers  of  Everybody's  Magazine  looked  at  the 
lower  right-hand  corner  of  the  page  and  read  "The 
N.  W.  Knitting  Company,  Minneapolis."  With  this 
thought  in  mind  they  looked  at  the  Oneita  goods,  but 
failed  to  notice  that  they  were  not  sold  by  the  N.  W. 
Knitting  Company.  The  Oneita  people  are  in  part 
responsible  for  the  illusion  in  that  they  allowed  their 
advertisement  to  appear  without  an  address  and  on  a 
page  with  a  similar  advertisement  which  has  an  address. 
The  more  recent  advertisements  of  the  Oneita  union 
suits  have  an  address  given  and  therefore  are  not  so 
subject  to  illusions  of  this  sort. 

The  confusion  by  which  readers  supposed  that  the 
portable  houses  were  presented  by  a  full  half -page  ad- 
vertisement is  a  typical  illusion  of  apperception.  The 
readers  had  their  minds  preoccupied  by  the  thought  of 
portable  houses,  and  so  the  attention  went  to  portable 
houses,  and  not  to  "The  Pen  That  Fills  Itself."  The 
Conklin  Pen  Company  did  not  make  it  perfectly  clear 
that  the  hand  was  pointing  to  their  space. 

In  the  confusion  of  hats  referred  ta,  Hatter  A  had 
made  his  name  so  familiar  to  the  residents  of  this  city 
that  when  they  read  a  hat  advertisement  they  did  it  with 
their  minds  preoccupied  with  the  thought  that  it  was 
A's  advertisement.  It  came  about  in  this  way  that  when 
they  read  B's  advertisement  they  read  it  as  A's  and 
failed  to  notice  B's  name,  which  was  given  at  the  bottom. 
It  is  quite  possible  tliat  B  might  have  greatly  reduced 


54       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

the  number  of  confusions  if  he  had  put  more  emphasis 
upon  his  own  name  and  address. 

The  young  lady  who  misread  Armour's  for  Ivory  had 
been  influenced  by  extensive  advertisements  of  Armour's 
which  had  appeared  in  her  town.  She  had  associated 
the  name  of  Armour  and  soap  so  closely  together  that 
when  she  read  of  soap  she  naturally  assumed  that  it 
was  Armour's  and  failed  to  see  Ivory,  just  as  the  inex- 
perienced proofreader  reads  the  proof  as  he  thinks  it 
ought  to  be  and  fails  to  observe  some  of  the  most  glaring 
errors.  It  should  also  be  observed  that  the  soap  adver- 
tisement did  not  emphasize  the  name  of  Ivory  at  all. 

The  figures  given  above  illustrate  the  same  principles 
of  illusions  of  apperception,  but  they  make  it  clearer 
than  any  confusion  of  concrete  advertisements  can 
possibly  do.  In  most,  if  not  in  all,  of  the  figures  the 
reader  can  voluntarily  preempt  his  mind  with  a  thought 
and  then  can  see  in  the  figure  that  of  which  he  is  think- 
ing. He  can  in  this  way  interpret  each  figure  in  two  or 
more  ways.  By  means  of  these  figures  we  can  see  the 
part  the  mind  adds  to  a  sensation  when  it.  interprets  a 
written,  printed,  or  drawn  symbol.  These  figures  also 
show  the  need  of  clear  and  distinct  presentation.  They 
ai*e  extremely  ambiguous,  and  can  with  equal  ease  be 
interpreted  in  two  or  more  ways.  With  slight  changes 
all  of  these  figures  could  be  remodeled  so  that  it  would 
be  much  more  difficult  to  interpret  them  in  any  way 
except  the  one  which  the  author  desired.  • 

That  firm  which  does  the  most  and  the  best  advertis- 
ing is  the  one  that  preempts  the  minds  of  the  possible 
customers  and  so  gets  the  benefit  of  more  advertisements 
than  it  pays  for.  The  firms  that  advertise  extensively 
and  do  not  fail  to  put  the  proper  emphasis  on  their 
names  and  addresses  are  the  firms  that  profit  most  by 


ILLUSIONS  OF  APPERCEPTION  55 

confusions.  New  firms  and  firms  that  put  little  emphasis 
on  their  names  and  addresses  would  be  much  surprised 
if  they  knew  how  many  possible  customers  read  their 
advertisements  and  still  fail  to  notice  who  they  are. 

Many  advertisers  believe  that  they  should  put  all  their 
emphasis  on  the  quality  of  the  goods.  They  assume  that 
if  any  one  wants  the  goods  thus  presented  they  will  take 
the  trouble  to  ascertain  the  brand  of  the  goods,  the  name 
of  the  firm,  and  its  address.  Such  a  theory  sounds  well, 
but  the  instances  of  confusion  cited  above  indicate  the 
weakness  of  the  theory  when  applied  to  specific  adver- 
tisements. 

In  this  chapter  we  have  confined  our  attention  to 
illusions  in  which  the  reader  has  confused  one  advertise- 
ment or  one  figure  for  another.  Ordinarily  illusions 
do  not  go  to  this  extreme,  but  are  confined  to  confusions 
and  misunderstandings  as  to  the  specific  arguments  of 
the  advertisements.  Since  we  have  positive  evidence 
that  these  extreme  illusions  are  not  uncommon,  w^e  can 
well  believe  that  illusions  of  a  less  extreme  but  serious 
nature  are  of  all  too  frequent  occurrence.  The  number 
of  such  illusions  would  be  materially  decreased  if  the 
writers  of  advertisements  would  see  to  it  that  the  minds 
of  the  possible  customers  are  prepared  for  the  argument 
which  they  are  about  to  write  and  if  they  would  present 
their  arguments  clearly  and  distinctly. 


56       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 


VI 

PEESONAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  MENTAL 
IMAGERY 

Yesterday  I  looked  in  at  a  shop  window  where  the 
current  magazines  were  displayed.  I  saw  the  front 
outer  cover  of  over  a  score  of  them.  Now,  as  I  sit  in 
my  study,  miles  away  from  that  window,  I  can  still  see 
the  magazines  with  my  "mind's  eye" ;  that  is  to  say,  I  can 
form  a  mental  image  of  the  window  and  the  magazines. 
I  can  describe  some  of  the  covers  accurately  as  to  color, 
shape,  type,  etc.  I  know  that  there  were  several  maga- 
zines off  to  the  left  side  of  the  window,  but  all  I  can  see 
of  them  now  is  the  barest  outline.  They  are  so  indistinct 
that  I  cannot  tell  what  they  are  at  all.  My  mental 
image  of  them  is  very  indistinct. 

But  recently  I  was  talking  with  a  friend  while  a  com- 
pany of  young  people  in  an  adjoining  room  was  playing 
on  the  piano  and  violin  and  singing  college  songs.  As 
I  sit  here  I  can  imagine  how  my  friend's  voice  sounded ; 
I  can  hear  in  imagination  how  the  piano  and  the  violin 
sounded ;  I  can  hear  in  imagination  the  tunes  which  they 
were  singing ;  that  is  to  say,  I  can  form  a  mental  image  of 
the  sounds  which  I  had  previously  heard.  I  notice,  how- 
ever, that  my  mental  image  is  not  so  distinct  and  pro- 
nounced as  the  original  perception.  I  cannot  form  a 
mental  image  of  some  of  the  notes  which  I  heard  from 
the  violin.  Only  the  more  striking  parts  of  the  tunes 
seem  to  be  plain,  and  even  they  seem  to  be  quite  low 
and  of  much  less  volume  than  the  originals. 

Only  an  hour  ago  T  ate  my  breakfast.     The  odor  and 


DIFFERENCES  IN  MENTAL  IMAGERY       57 

taste  of  the  coffee  were  at  that  time  very  pleasing  to  me. 
Now  I  can  imagine  how  it  smelt  and  tasted,  but  the 
images  of  it  are  not  very  vivid  and  are  not  strong  enough 
to  give  me  any  pleasure  in  recalling  them. 

Last  night  I  was  on  the  ice  playing  hockey.  The  exer- 
cise was  very  vigorous  and  exciting.  At  the  time  I  did 
not  stop  to  think  how  it  felt  to  "put  the  puck/'  but  I 
must  have  felt  the  exertion  of  my  muscles  as  I  performed 
the  act.  Now  I  can  form  a  mental  image  of  the  act ;  I 
can  feel  my  muscles  as  they  make  the  strain  necessary 
for  the  performance.  I  was  perspiring  when  I  left  the 
pond  and  soon  my  woolen  underwear  became  excessively 
unpleasant.  I  felt  the  unpleasant  contact  on  my  skin 
at  that  time,  and  now  I  can  form  a  mental  image  of  the 
sensation,  which  is  so  strong  that  it  makes  me  want  to 
stop  writing  to  scratch. 

As  is  indicated  by  the  examples  given  above,  I  can 
form  a  mental  image  of  that  which  I  have  seen,  heard, 
tasted,  smelt,  felt  (in  my  muscles),  or  touched  (with 
my  skin) .  In  general  it  might  be  said  that  we  can  form 
a  mental  image  of  anything  which  we  have  ever  per- 
ceived. There  are  many  exceptions  to  this  statement, 
as  w^ill  be  shown  later. 

Almost  all  of  our  dreams  and  reveries  and  a  large 
part  of  our  more  serious  thinking  are  composed  of  a 
succession  of  these  mental  images  of  things  which  we 
have  previously  experienced.  We  cannot  see  the  images 
in  the  mind  of  our  neighbor,  but  we  are  likely  to  suppose 
that  his  thinking  is  very  much  like  our  own.  It  was 
formerly  supposed  that  such  was  the  case.  It  was  as- 
sumed that  the  normal  mind  could  form  images  of  every- 
thing which  it  had  experienced.  It  was  further  as- 
sumed that  there  were  no  personal  differences  as  to  the 
clearness  and  vividness  of  such  mental   images. 


58       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

In  1880  Francis  Galton  discovered  that  there  was  a 
great  difference  in  individuals  in  their  ability  to  form 
these  mental  images.  He  found  that  some  persons  could 
form  mental  images  which  were  almost  as  vivid  and 
strong  as  the  original  perception,  while  for  others  the 
past  was  veiled  in  indistinctness.  He  also  found  that 
certain  persons  could  form  mental  images  of  one  class 
of  perceptions,  but  could  form  no  mental  images  of  other 
classes.  Thus,  one  man  could  not  imagine  how  his 
friends  looked  when  he  was  absent  from  them ;  another 
could  not  imagine  how  a  piano  sounded  when  the  piano 
was  out  of  his  hearing. 

Prof.  William  James,  of  Harvard  University,  con- 
tinued the  investigations  begun  by  Mr.  Galton.  He  col- 
lected papers  from  hundreds  of  persons  in  which  each 
one  described  his  own  image  of  his  breakfast  table.  One 
who  is  a  good  visualizer  writes : 

"This  morning's  breakfast  table  is  both  dim  and 
bright :  it  is  dim  if  I  try  to  think  of  it  when  my  eyes  are 
open  upon  any  object;  it  is  perfectly  clear  and  bright 
if  I  think  of  it  with  my  eyes  closed.  All  the  objects  are 
clear  at  once,  yet  when  I  confine  my  attention  to  any  one 
object  it  becomes  far  more  distinct.  I  have  more  power 
to  recall  color  than  any  other  one  thing ;  if,  for  example, 
I  were  to  recall  a  plate  decorated  with  flowers,  I  could 
reproduce  in  a  drawing  the  exact  tones,  etc.  The  color 
of  anything  that  was  on  the  table  is  perfectly  vivid. 
There  is  very  little  limit  to  the  extent  of  my  images:  I 
can  see  all  four  sides  of  a  room ;  I  can  see  all  four  sides 
of  two,  three,  four,  or  even  more  rooms  with  such  dis- 
tinctness that  if  you  should  ask  me  what  was  in  any 
particular  place  in  any  one,  or  ask  me  to  count  the 
chairs,  etc.,  I  could  do  it  without  the  least  hesitation. 
The  more  I  learn  by  heart  the  more  clearly  do  I  see 


DIFFERENCES  IN  MENTAL  IMAGERY       59 

images  of  my  pages.  Even  before  I  can  recite  the  lines 
I  see  them  so  that  I  could  give  them  very  slowly,  word 
for  word,  but  my  mind  is  so  occupied  in  looking  at  my 
printed  page  that  I  have  no  idea  of  what  I  am  saying, 
of  the  sense  of  it,  etc.  When  I  first  found  myself  doing 
this,  I  used  to  think  it  was  merely  because  I  knew  the 
lines  imperfectly,  but  I  have  quite  convinced  myself  that 
I  really  do  see  an  image.  The  strongest  proof  that  such 
is  really  the  fact  is,  I  think,  the  following : 

"I  can  look  down  the  mentally  seen  page  and  see  the 
words  that  commence  all  the  lines,  and  from  any  one  of 
these  words  I  can  continue  the  line.  I  find  this  much 
easier  to  do  if  the  words  begin  in  a  straight  line  than  if 
there  are  breaks.     Example : 

''Etantfait     .     .     . 

''Tons     ...  ' 

''A  des     .     .     . 

''Que  fit     ... 

''Geres    ... 
"Avec    .     .     . 

"Un  fleur     ...  .  •  ^    " 

"Comme    .     .     . 

"(La  Fontaine  8,  iv.)'' 

Those  who  are  poor  visualizers  are  likely  to  suspect 
the  writer  of  ^the  above  paper  as  exaggerating  the  vivid- 
ness of  his  visual  images,  yet  there  is  every  reason  to 
suppose  that  there  is  no  exaggeration  about  it. 

One  who  is  a  poor  visualizer  writes : 

"My  ability  to  form  mental  images  seems,  from  what 
I  have  studied  of  other  people's  images,  to  be  defective 
and  somewhat  peculiar.  The  process  by  which  I  remem- 
ber any  particular  event  is  not  by  any  distinct  images, 
but  a  sort  of  panorama,  the  faintest  impressions  of  which 
are  perceptible  through  a  thick  fog.     I  cannot  shut  my 


60       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

eyes  and  get  a  distinct  image  of  any  one,  although  I  used 
to  be  able  to  a  few  years  ago,  and  the  faculty  seems  to 
have  gradually  slipped  away.  In  my  most  vivid  dreams, 
where  the  events  appear  like  the  most  real  facts,  I  am 
often  troubled  with  a  dimness  of  sight  which  causes  the 
image  to  appear  indistinct.  To  come  to  the  question 
of  the  breakfast  table,  there  is  nothing  definite  about  it. 
Everything  is  vague.  I  cannot  say  what  I  see;  could 
not  possibly  count  the  chairs,  but  I  happen  to  know  that 
there  are  ten.  I  see  nothing  in  detail.  The  chief  thing 
is  a  general  impression  that  I  cannot  tell  what  I  do  see. 
The  color  is  about  the  same,  as  far  as  I  can  recall  it, 
only  very  much  washed  out.  Perhaps  the  only  color  I 
can  see  at  all  distinctly  is  that  of  the  tablecloth,  and 
I  could  probably  see  the  color  of  the  wall-paper  if  I  could 
remember  what  color  it  was.'' 

Every  year  I  ask  each  of  my  students  in  psychology 
to  write  out  in  full  a  description  of  his  mental  image  of 
his  breakfast  table,  a  railroad  train,  and  a  football 
game.  In  these  papers  are  examples  of  as  good  and  as 
poor  visualizers  as  those  given  from  the  papers  collected 
by  Professor  James.  I  have  found  that  there  is  not  only 
a  personal  difference  in  the  ability  to  form  visual  images, 
but  that  the  same  differences  exi«t  for  the  other  classes 
of  perceptions.  One  student  who  has  strong  auditory 
imagery  writes  as  follows : 

^^When  I  think  of  the  breakfast  table  I  do  not  seem  to 
have  a  clear  visual  image  of  it.  I  can  see  the  length  of  it, 
the  three  chairs, — though  I  can't  tell  the  color  or  shape- 
of  these, — the  white  cloth  and  something  on  it,  but  I 
can't  see  the  pattern  of  the  dishes  or  any  of  the  food. 
I  can  very  plainly  hear  the  rattle  of  the  dishes  and  of 
the  silver  and  above  this  hear  the  conversation,  also  the 
other  noises,  such  as  a  train  which  passes  every  morning 


DIFFERENCES  IN  MENTAL  IMAGERY       61 

while  we  are  at  breakfast.  Again  in  a  football  game  I 
distinctly  hear  the  noise,  but  do  not  see  clearly  anything 
or  anybody.  I  hear  the  stillness  when  every  one  is 
intent  and  then  the  loud  cheering.  Here  I  notice  the 
differences  of  pitch  and  tone." 

I  had  read  that  some  people  were  unable  to  imagine 
sounds  which  they  had  heard,  but  it  had  not  impressed 
me,  for  I  had  supposed  that  such  persons  were  great 
exceptions.  I  was  truly  surprised  when  I  found  so 
many  of  my  students  writing  papers  similar  to  those 
from  which  extracts  are  here  given : 

"My  mental  imagery  is  visual,  as  I  seem  to  see  things 
and  not  to  hear,  feel,  or  smell  them.  The  element  of 
sound  seems  practically  never  to  enter  in.  When  I  think 
of  a  breakfast  table  or  a  football  game  I  have  a  distinct 
image.     I  see  colors,  but  hear  no  sound." 

Another,  in  describing  his  image  of  a  railroad  train, 
writes : 

"I  am  not  able  to  state  whether  I  hear  the  train  or 
not.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  a  noiseless  one. 
It  is  hard  for  me  to  conceive  of  the  sound  of  a  bell,  for 
instance.  I  can  see  the  bell  move  to  and  fro,  and  for  an 
instant  seem  to  hear  the  ding,  dong ;  but  it  is  gone  before 
I  can  identify  it.  When  I  try  to  conceive  of  shouts  I  am 
like  one  groping  in  the  dark.  I  cannot  possibly  retain 
the  conception  of  a  sound  for  any  length  of  time." 

Another,  who  seems  to  have  no  vivid  images  of  any 
kind,  writes : 

"When  I  recall  the  breakfast  table  I  see  it  and  the 
persons  around  it.  The  number  of  them  is  distinct,  for 
there  is  only  one  of  them  on  each  side  of  the  table.  But 
they  seem  like  mere  objects  in  space.  Only  when  I  think 
of  each  separately  do  I  clearly  see  them.  As  for  the 
table,  all  I  see  is  a  general  whiteness,  interspersed  with 


62       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

objects.  I  hear  nothing  at  all,  and  indeed  the  whole 
thing  is  so  indistinct  it  bewilders  me  when  I  think  of 
it.  My  mental  imagery  is  very  vague  and  hazy,  unless 
I  have  previously  taken  special  notice  of  what  I  now 
have  an  image.  For  instance,  when  I  have  an  image  of 
a  certain  person,  I  cannot  tell  his  particular  character- 
istics unless  my  attention  was  formerly  directed  to 
them.'' 

Another  writes : 

"There  is  no  sound  in  connection  with  any  image. 
In  remembering  I  call  up  an  incident  and  gradually  fill 
out  the  details.  I  can  very  seldom  recall  how  anything 
sounds.  One  sound  from  the  play  ^Robespierre,'  by 
Henry  Irving,  which  I  heard  about  two  years  ago  and 
which  I  could  recall  some  time  afterward,  I  have  been 
unable  to  recall  this  fall,  though  I  have  tried  to  do  so. 
I  can  see  the  scene  quite  perfectly,  the  position  of  the 
actors  and  stage  setting,  even  the  action  of  a  player  who 
brought  out  the  sound." 

Quite  a  large  proportion  of  persons  find  it  impossible 
to  imagine  motion  at  all.  As  they  think  of  a  football 
game  all  the  players  are  standing  stock  still;  they  are 
as  they  are  represented  in  a  photograph.  They  are  in 
the  act  of  running,  but  no  motion  is  represented.  Like- 
wise, the  banners  and  streamers  are  all  motionless.  They 
find  it  impossible  to  think  of  such  a  thing  as  motion. 
Others  find  that  the  motions  are  the  most  vivid  part  of 
their  images.  What  they  remember  of  a  scene  is  prin- 
cipally movement.     One  writes : 

"When  the  word  ^breakfast  table'  was  given  out  I 
saw  our  breakfast  table  at  home,  especially  the  table  and 
the  white  tablecloth.  The  cloth  seemed  to  be  the  most 
distinct  object.  I  can  see  each  one  in  his  place  at  the 
table.     I  can  see  no  color  except  that  of  the  tablecloth. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  MENTAL  IMAGERY       63 

The  dishes  are  there,  but  are  very  indistinct.  I  cannot 
hear  the  rattle  of  the  dishes  or  the  voices  very  distinctly  ; 
the  voices  seem  much  louder  than  the  dishes,  but  neither 
are  very  clear.  I  can  feel  the  motions  which  I  make 
during  the  breakfast  hour.  1  feel  myself  come  in,  sit 
down,  and  begin  to  eat.  I  can  see  the  motions  of  those 
about  me  quite  plainly.  I  believe  the  feeling  of  motion 
was  the  most  distinct  feeling  I  had.  When  the  word 
^railroad  train'  was  given,  I  saw  the  train  very  plainly 
just  stopping  in  front  of  the  depot.  I  saw  the  people 
getting  on  the  train;  these  people  were  very  indistinct. 
It  is  their  motions  rather  than  the  people  themselves 
which  I  see.  I  can  feel  myself  getting  on  the  train, 
finding  a  seat,  and  sitting  down.  I  cannot  hear  the  noise 
of  the  train,  but  can  hear  rather  indistinctly  the  con- 
ductor calling  the  stations.  I  believe  my  mental  imagery 
is  more  motile  [of  movement]  than  anything  else.  Al- 
though I  can  see  some  things  quite  plainly,  I  seem  to  feel 
the  movements  most  distinctly.'' 

A  very  few  in  describing  their  images  of  the  breakfast 
table  made  special  mention  of  the  taste  of  the  food  and 
of  its  odor.  I  have  discovered  no  one  whose  prevailing 
imagery  is  for  either  taste  or  smell.  With  very  many 
the  image  of  touch  is  very  vivid.  They  can  imagine  just 
how  velvet  feels,  how  a  fly  feels  on  one's  nose,  the  discom- 
fort of  a  tight  shoe,  and  the  pleasure  of  stroking  a 
smooth  marble  surface. 

It  is  a  well-observed  fact  that  different  classes  of  soci- 
ety think  differently  and  that  arguments  which  would 
appeal  to  one  class  would  be  worthless  with  another.  A 
man's  occupation,  his  age,  his  environment,  etc.,  make  a 
difference  in  his  manner  of  thinking,  and  in  the  motives 
which  prompt  him  to  action.  In  appealing  to  people  we 
ordinarily  think  of  these  conditions  and  formulate  our 


64       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

argument  in  accordance  with  these  motives.  That  is  to 
say,  we  address  ourselves  to  a  particular  social  or  indus- 
trial class.  The  study  of  mental  imagery  makes  it  evi- 
dent that  there  are  personal  differences  apart  from  dif- 
ferences due  to  environment,  but  which  are  inherent  in 
the  individual.  Some  well-educated  persons  are  so  desti- 
tute of  visual  images  that  they  are  utterly  unable  to  ap- 
preciate the  description  of  a  scene  when  it  is  described  in 
visual  terms.  Many  persons  find  themselves  bored  even 
by  Victor  Hugo's  description  of  the  scene  of  the  battle 
of  Waterloo.  To  them  the  whole  scene  is  unimaginable 
and  therefore  unintelligible  and  uninteresting.  I  have 
been  interested  in  observing  that  the  authors  which  are 
read  with  universal  delight  are  those  who  appeal  to 
all  the  various  classes  of  mental  imagery.  Dickens,  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  Tennyson,  Washington  Irving,  and  many 
of  the  authors  who  are  universally  appreciated,  appeal 
to  and  awaken  many  auditory  images  as  well  as  images 
of  taste,  smell,  touch,  and  motion;  Browning  appeals 
most  often  and  most  exclusively  to  visual  images.  It 
is  quite  certain  that  a  person  can  best  be  appealed  to 
through  his  dominating  imagery.  A  person  who  has 
visual  images  that  are  very  clear  and  distinct  appreci- 
ates descriptions  of  scenes.  A  person  with  auditory 
imagery  delights  in  having  auditory  images  awakened. 
The  same  holds  true  for  the  other  classes  of  mental 
imagery.  Of  all  the  writings  of  Washington  Irving 
"The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow''  is  one  of  the  favorites. 
One  element  of  strength  in  this  is  the  manner  in  which 
the  author  succeeds  in  awakening  the  different  classes 
of  mental  imagery  in  the  reader.  Take,  for  example, 
the  following  passages,  in  which  the  "eye-minded'' 
reader  sees  the  scene  while  the  "ear-minded"  reader 
hears  that  which  is  being  described : 


DIFFERENCES  IN  MENTAL  IMAGERY       65 

^^Not  far  from  this  village,  perhaps  about  two  miles, 
there  is  a  little  valley,  or  rather  lap  of  land,  among  high 
hills,  which  is  one  of  the  quietest  places  in  all  the  world. 
A  small  brook  glides  through  it,  with  just  murmur 
enough  to  lull  one  to  repose;  and  the  occasional  whistle 
of  a  quail,  or  tapping  of  a  woodpecker,  is  almost  the  only 
sound  that  ever  breaks  in  on  the  uniform  tranquility. 
...  I  had  wandered  into  it  at  noontime,  when  all  nature 
is  peculiarly  quiet,  and  was  startled  by  the  roar  of  my 
own  gun  as  it  broke  the  Sabbath  stillness  around  and 
was  prolonged  and  reverberated  by  the  angry  echoes.'' 

As  an  example  of  the  way  in  which  Washington  Irving 
could  awaken  images  of  taste  and  of  odor,  examine  the 
following,  taken  from  the  same  selection : 

"The  pedagogue's  mouth  watered  as  he  looked  upon 
this  sumptuous  promise  of  luxurious  winter  fare.  In 
his  devouring  mind's  eye  he  pictured  to  himself  every 
roasting  pig  running  about  with  a  pudding  in  his  belly 
and  an  apple  in  his  mouth ;  the  pigeons  were  snugly  put 
to  bed  in  a  comfortable  pie,  and  tucked  in  with  a  cover- 
let of  crust;  the  geese  were  swimming  in  their  own 
gravy,  and  the  ducks  pairing  cosily  in  dishes,  like  snug 
married  couples,  with  a  decent  competency  of  onion 
sauce.  In  the  porkers. he  saw  carved  out  the  future 
sleek  side  of  bacon  and  juicy,  relishing  ham ;  not  a  turkey 
but  he  beheld  daintily  trussed  up,  with  its  gizzard  under 
its  wing  and  peradventure,  a  necklace  of  savory  sau- 
sage," etc. 

This  author  is  not  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest^  but 
certainly  the  fascination  for  his  writings  is  found  in  part 
in  the  fact  that  in  his  imagination  he  could  see  the  wood- 
land, he  could  hear  the  murmur  of  the  brook,  he  could 
taste  the  pies,  he  could  smell  the  fragrance  of  the 
orchards,  he  could  feel  the  bumps  as  Ichabod  Crane  rode 


66       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

the  old  horse  Gunpowder,  he  could  feel  the  muscle  con- 
tract in  the  brawny  arms  of  Brom  Bones.  Having  all 
these  images  distinct  himself,  he  depicted  them  so  well 
that  similar  images  are  awakened  in  us  in  as  far  as  we 
are  capable  of  imagining  what  he  described.  It  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  Washington  Irving  intentionally 
tried  to  awaken  in  his  readers  these  various  classes  of 
images,  but  he  did  unconsciously  what  it  might  be  wise 
for  us  to  do  consciously. 

An  advertiser,  as  well  as  any  other  author,  might  do 
well  to  examine  his  own  writings  to  see  what  sort. of 
images  he  is  appealing  to.  It  is  in  general  best  to 
appeal  to  as  many  different  classes  of  images  as  possible, 
for  in  this  way  variety  is  given  and  each  reader  is  ap- 
pealed to  in  the  sort  of  imagery  in  which  he  thinks 
most  readily  and  by  means  of  which  he  is  most  easily 
influenced. 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY       67 


VII 

PRACTICAL  APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL 
IMAGEEY 

The  young  men  and  women  of  to-day  are  accused  of 
being  poorer  spellers  than  their  parents.  The  reasons 
for  this  may  be  many,  but  one  has  direct  bearing  upon 
our  subject  of  discussion.  Formerly  children  in  school 
spelled  orally.  They  saw  the  word  printed  in  their 
books;  they  did  more  or  less  writing,  and  then  felt  the 
movements  of  their  hands  and  arms  as  they  wrote; 
they  were  called  upon  to  spell  the  word  in  class  orally, 
and  so  heard  how  it  sounded.  They  thus  had  three 
"cues"  for  the  word — they  saw  it,  they  felt  it,  and  they 
heard  it.  When  they  were  called  upon  to  spell  a  word 
they  had  all  of  these  three  cues  to  assist  them  in  re- 
membering how  it  was  spelled,  i.e.^  to  assist  them  in 
forming  an  image  of  it.  Some  years  ago  oral  spelling 
was  displaced  by  written  spelling.  In  this  way  one  of 
the  cues  was  abandoned, — the  oral  one, — and  it  was 
found  that  pupils  made  more  mistakes  in  writing  than 
those  who  had  spelled  orally.  Because  of  this  fact  oral 
spelling  is  being  brought  back  to  the  schoolroom.  An 
attempt  is  being  made  to  have  the  scholars  see,  hear, 
and  feel  the  word,  and,  in  this  way,  their  spelling  will 
be  better  than  if  they  omitted  one  of  the  three  processes. 
The  scholar  knows  the  word  better  and  can  form  a  more 
distinct  image  of  it  if  he  has  these  three  cues  to  assist 
him. 

In  a  former  age  the  seller,  the  buyer,  and  the  commod- 
ity were  brought  together.   Th6  seller  described  and  ex- 


68       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

hibited  his  wares.  The  buyer  saw  the  goods,  heard  of 
them,  tasted  them,  smelt  them,  felt,  and  lifted  them. 
He  tested  them  by  means  of  every  sense  organ  to  which 
they  could  appeal.  In  this  way  the  buyer  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  goods.  His  perception  of  them  was 
as  complete  as  it  could  be  made.  In  these  latter  days 
the  market  place  has  given  way  to  the  offit^e.  The  con- 
sequent separation  of  buyer,  seller,  and  commodity  made 
the  commercial  traveler  with  his  sample  case  seem  a 
necessity.  But,  with  the  growing  volume  of  business, 
and  with  the  increased  need  for  more  economical  forms 
of  transacting  business,  the  printed  page,  as  a  form 
of  advertisement,  has  superseded  the  market  place,  and 
is,  in  many  cases,  displacing  the  commercial  traveler. 
In  this  transition  from  the  market  place  and  the  com- 
mercial traveler  to  the  printed  page,  the  advertiser  must 
be  on  his  guard  to  preserve  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
good  features  of  the  older  institutions.  In  the  two  older 
forms  of  barter  all  the  senses  of  the  purchaser  were 
appealed  to,  if  possible,  and  in  addition  to  this  the  word 
of  mouth  of  the  seller  was  added  to  increase  the  im- 
pressions and  to  call  special  attention  to  the  strong 
features  of  the  commodity.  In  the  printed  page  the 
word  of  mouth  is  the  only  feature  which  is  of  necessity 
entirely  absent.  Indeed,  the  printed  page  cannot  appeal 
directly  to  any  of  the  senses  except  the  eye,  but  the 
argument  may  be  of  such  a  nature  that  the  reader's 
senses  are  appealed  to  indirectly  through  his  imagina- 
tion. 

One  of  the  great  weaknesses  of  the  present-day  adver- 
tising is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  writer  of  the  ad- 
vertisement fails  to  appeal  thus  indirectly  to  the  senses. 
How^  many  advertisers  describe  a  piano  so  vividly  that 
the  reader  can  hear  it?    How  many  food  products  are 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY       69 

SO  described  that  the  reader  can  taste  the  food?  How 
many  advertisements  describe  a  perfume  so  that  the 
reader  can  smell  it?  How  many  describe  an  undergar- 
ment so  that  the  reader  can  feel  the  pleasant  contact 
with  his  body?  Many  advertisers  seem  never  to  have 
thought  of  this,  and  make  no  attempt  at  such  descrip- 
tions. 

The  cause  of  this  deficiency  is  twofold.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  not  easy  in  type  to  appeal  to  any  other  sense 
than  that  of  sight.  Other  than  visual  images  are  diffi- 
cult to  awaken  when  the  means  employed  is  the  printed 
page.  In  the  second  place,  the  individual  writers  are 
deficient  in  certain  forms  of  mental  imagery,  and  there- 
fore are  not  adepts  in  describing  articles  in  terms  which 
to  themselves  are  not  significant.  This  second  ground 
for  failure  in  writing  effective  advertisements  will  be 
made  clear  by  the  following  examples  taken  from  good 
and  from  poor  advertisements.  "Good''  and  "poor'' 
are  used  here  in  a  very  narrow  sense.  For  convenience' 
sake  these  advertisements  are  called  good  which  are 
good  according  to  the  single  standard  here  under  con- 
sideration. 

A  piano  is  primarily  not  a  thing  to  look  at  or  an 
object  for  profitable  investment,  but  it  is  a  musical  in- 
strument. It  might  be  beautiful  and  cheap,  but  still 
be  very  undesirable.  The  chief  thing  about  a  piano 
is  the  quality  of  its  tone.  Many  advertisers  of  pianos 
do  not  seem  to  have  the  slightest  appreciation  of  this 
fact.  As  a  first  example  of  this,  read  the  following  ad- 
vertisement (No.  1),  in  which  an  entire  advertisement 
of  the  Emerson  piano  is  reproduced  exactly,  with  the 
single  exception  that  the  word  "incubator"  is  substi- 
tuted for  "piano." 

The  Emerson  advertisement  is  not  peculiar  because 


70       THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

of  its  deficienc}'.  In  fact,  the  majority  of  piano  adver- 
tisements are  equally  poor.  The  following  advertise- 
ment of  the  Vose  (No.  2)  belongs  to  the  same  class. 
In  it  the  word  "camera"  is  substituted  for  "piano." 


Emerson 

Incubators 


T  F  any  one  offers  you  a  "  just  as 
^  good  "  Incubator  at  a  lower  price 
than  an  EMERSON  costs,  you  had 
better  buy  it  —  but  make  sure  it  is 
"■  just  as  good."  A  reputation  for 
reliable  goods  is  better  than  a  repu- 
tation for  low  prices.  Our  prices, 
however,  must  be  right  or  there 
would  not  be  to-day  over  76,000 
Emerson  Incubators  in  use! 

Write  for  illustrated  catalogue  and  our 
easy  payment  plan. 

EMERSON  INCUBATOR  CO. 
BOSTON  DEPT.  E.  CHICAGO 

120  Boylston  St.  195  Wabash  Ave. 


No.  1 

What  has  been  said  of  these  two  advertisements  would 
hold  true  of  the  advertisements  in  the  current  issues  of 
the  magazines  of  the  Gabler  piano,  and  of  many  others. 

These  advertisements  apply  equally  well  for  paint- 
ings^ perfumes,  fountain  pens,  bicycles,  snuff  or  sau- 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY       71 

sages,  and  would  be  equally  poor  if  used  to  advertise 
any  of  them.  They  are  not  specific,  and  do  not  describe 
or  refer  in  any  way  to  the  essential  characteristic  of  a 
piano.  They  awaken  no  images  of  sound;  they  do  not 
make  us  hear  the  piano  in  our  imagination. 

The  reproduced  advertisement  of  the  Carola  (No.  3) 


vose 

CAMERAS 

HAVE  BEEN  ESTABLISHED  50  YEARS 

and  are  receiving  more  favorable  comments  to-day 
from  an  artistic  standpoint  than  all  other  makes 
combined. 

I  WE  s 

♦    Challenge  Comparisons.    ♦ 


s 

I 


f 


By  our  easy  payment  plan,  every  family  in  mod- 
erate circumstances  can  own  a  vose  camera.  We 
allow  a  liberal  price  for  old  instruments  in  exchange, 
and  deliver  the  camera  in  your  house  free  of  expense. 
You  can  deal  with  us  at  a  distant  point  the  same  as  in 
Boston.     Send  for  catalogue  and  full  information. 


• 


♦ 


s    VOSE  &  SONS  CAMERA  CO.,    s 


1 63  Bovl.ston  Street. 


Boston 


No.  2 


depicts  the  joy  derived  from  the  rhythm  of  music,  but 
it  awakens  no  images  of  tone.  The  advertisement  rep- 
resents a  Carola  as  superior  to  a  drum  because  it  is 
easier  to  play. 

The  little  antiquated  advertisement  of  the  Blasius 
(No.  4)  was  an  attempt  in  the  right  direction.  The 
musical  scale  suggests  music  specifically;  the  picture 
of  the  piano  recalls  the  sounds  of  the  music  to  a  certain 
extent;  the  lady  at  the  piano  suggests  music,  for  she  is 


in/^mm 


the  children    HomCS 

provide  their 
own  music  and  amuse- 
ment. They  can  dance 
at  any  time.  And  how 
they  enjoy  it!  CPerhaps 
not  those  highly  artificial 
drawing  room  steps,  but 
those  delightful  dances  that 
are  so  graceful,  and  full  of 
rhythm.  You  will  remember 
what  the  great  educator, 
Stanley  Hall,  said  of  them — 

"I  voald  hare  claiicin(2  taujjht  in 
every  school,  even  if  the  school 
had  to  be  opened  ereninjjs  for 
that  purpose." 

— But  you  want  your 
children  to  dance  at  home* 

And  the 


Piano 


IS  first  aid  and  best  aid.  You  who  already  have  a  piano  of  the  rarely 
used  type,  have  gone  a  long  way  toward  owning  an  Inner-Player.  Your  instru- 
ment, with  a  few  monthly  payments  added,  would  bring  to  your  home  "  ..edi- 
atelv  the  Nf  odem  Piano— the  piano  which  even  a  child  can  play — AND  PLAY 
WITH  EXPRESSION. 

The  mmHAjnrnm-mmm  Piano  has  two  keyboards.  On  one,  you 
play  by  hand,  as  a  perfect  piano.  On  the  other,  inside  and  out  of  sight,  the 
eighty-eight  flexible  fingers  strike  with  the  accuracy  of  a  trained  pianist,  and 
with  the  delicate  touch  of  an  artist.  No  other  Player-Piano  has  this  Miniature 
Keyboard. 


YOUR  NAME  &  ADDRESS 

Factory  Distributor 

Set  Up  Here  By  Your  Paper 


No.  3 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY       73 

not  turning  around  to  be  looked  at  (cf.  an  advertise- 
ment of  Ivers  &  Pond  pianos  in  the  current  magazines), 
but  is  intent  upon  her  playing.  The  text  also  uses  words 
whose  sole  function  is  to  awaken  images  of  sound.  These 
expressions  appear  in  the  advertisement:  "Excellent 
tone,"   "the  sweetest  tone   I  ever  heard,''   "sweet  and 


No.  4 


melodious  in  tone,"  "like  a  grand  church  organ  for 
power  and  volume;  and  a  brilliant,  sweet-toned  piano, 
in  one." 

The  man  who  cannot  appreciate  the  tone  of  a  musical 
Instrument,  and  who  can  form  but  indistinct  images 
of  musical  tones,  is  not  a  good  man  to  write  the  adver- 
tisements for  a  music  house.  He  might  improve  his 
style  of  writing  by  reading  selections  in  which  the  author 
shows  by  his  writing  that  he  hears  in  imagination  what 
he  describes  and  his  descriptions  are  so  vivid  that  he 
makes  us  hear  it  too. 

In  determining  which  foods  I  shall  eat  it  is  a  matter 
of  some  importance  to  know  how  the  goods  are  mantl- 
factured,  what  the  price  is,  how  it  is  prepared  for  the 
table,  and  whether  it  is  nourishing  or  harmful  to  my 


74       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

system.  The  one  essential  element,  however,  is  the 
taste.  When  I  look  over  a  bill  of  fare  I  seek  out  what 
I  think  will  taste  good.  When  I  order  groceries  I  order 
what  pleases  and  tickles  my  palate.  I  want  the  food 
that  makes  me  smack  my  lips,  that  makes  my  mouth 
water.  Under  these  circumstances  all  other  considera- 
tions are  minimized  to  the  extreme. 


Lasting  Tone-beauty 


is  what  one  demands  m  a  piano.  The 
Packard  tone  is  singularly  rich  and  of 
great  endurance.  "  Practice  "  will  not  de- 
stroy it.  Becomes  ampler  and  more  sym- 
pathetic with  use.  Superior  materials  and 
skillful  workmanship  insure  this  perma- 
nence of  tone-loveliness. 

We  will  send  catalogue  and  full  particu. 

lars  upon  request.    Address  P  O.  Box  C 

THE  PACKARD  CO.,      Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 


No.  5 


In  advertisements  of  food  products  I  have  been  sur- 
prised to  note  that  many  foods  are  advertised  as  if  they 
had  no  taste  at  all.  One  would  suppose  that  the  food 
was  to  be  taken  by  means  of  a  hypodermic  injection 
and  not  by  the  ordinary  process  of  taking  the  food 
into  the  mouth  and  hence  into  contact  with  the  organ 
of  taste.  The  advertisers  seem  to  be  at  a  loss  to  know 
what  to  say  about  their  foods,  and  so  have,  in  many 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGEKY       75 

cases,  expressed  themselves  in  such  general  terms  that 
their  advertisements  could  be  applied  equally  well  to 
almost  any  product  whatever.  The  two  reproduced 
advertisements  (Nos.  6  and  7),  taken  from  recent  issues 
of  household  periodicals,  are  samples  of  such  meaning- 
less generalities. 

These  two  advertisements  are  reproduced  exactly  with 
the  single  exception  that  the  names  of  the  commodities 


a.]?e  THE  BEiST 

Best  beans  only  are  used. 
Extra  care  exercised  in  blending. 
Corn  shells  and  dirt  are  removed. 
Adulterations  not  permitted. 
Use  of  most  Improved  machinery. 
Standard  ol  merit— our  watchword. 
Endless  watchfulness  during  manufacture. 

Cost  no  more  than  others 


No.  6 


have  been  changed  in  each  case.  I  would  suggest  to 
these  firms  that  they  might  improve  their  advertisements 
by  leaving  off  the  name  of  the  goods  entirely  and  then 
offer  a  prize  to  the  person  who  could  guess  what  they 
were  advertisements  of,  or  else  offer  the  prize  for  the 
one  who  should  suggest  the  largest  list  of  goods  which 
could  be  equally  well  presented  by  these  advertisements. 
Some  advertisers  of  food  are  evidently  chronic  dys- 
peptics and  take  it  for  granted  that  all  others  are  in 
the  same  condition.  They  have  nothing  to  say  about 
their  foods  except  that  they  have  wonderful  medicinal 
properties.    To  me  a  food  which  is  only  healthful  savors 


76       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING- 

of  hospitals  and  sickrooms,  and  is  something  which  a 
well  man  or  woman  would  not  want. 

There  are  advertisers  who  appreciate  the  epicurean 
tendency  of  the  ordinary  man  and  woman.     They  de- 


No.  7 


scribe  foods  in  such  a  way  that  we  immediately  want 
what  they  describe.  Of  all  the  advertisements  in  cur- 
rent magazines  jjerhaps  the  one  of  the  National  Biscuit 
Company  reproduced  herewith  (No.  8)  presents  their 
product  in  the  most  tempting  manner.  According  to 
this  advertisement  "Nabisco''  is  something  to  he  eaten, 


APPLICATIO:^^  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY       77 


NABISCO 

Wafers 

A  Fairy  Sandwich  with 
an  upper  and  lower 
crust  of  indescribable 
delicacy,  separated  with 
a  creamy  flavoring  of 

Lemon,  Orange, 
Chpcolate,  Vanilla, 

Strawberry, 
Raspberry,  or  Mint. 

Ask  for  your  favorite  flavor 
NATIONAL  BISCUIT  COMPANY 


No.  8 


78       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

and  it  is  presented  in  such  a  way  that  it  would  seem 
that  one  cannot  read  of  it  without  being  convinced  that 
it  is  good  and  something  that  he  wants — and  the  quicker 
he  gets  it  the  better. 


raufcf'dSIi^' 


DETTER  leather  has! 
*-'  never  been  canaed 
than    goes  into  Craw- 
ford Shoes. 

That  s     whv     they 
wear  so  long. 


BOSTOB  M<w    3f:'l'3iiiiif'£','.C 


MM  Otk  BsocnuK  Utkm  •mc 


No.  9 


This  advertisement  has  character  and  individuality. 
Its  statements  could  not  be  applied  to  anything  but 
foods  or,  indeed,  to  anything  but  Nabisco.  They  do 
not  say  that  Nabisco  is  wholesome,  but  when  I  read 
them  I  feel  sure  that  Nabisco  would  agree  with  me. 

The  skin  is  the  sense  organ  by  means  of  which  we 
receive  sensations  of  pressure,  touch,  heat,  and  cold, 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY       79 

and  it  is  the  organ  which  gives  more  "comfortable''  and 
"uncomfortable"  feelings  than  any  other.  Having  ex- 
perienced touch,  pressure,  cold,  heat,  and  the  comforts 
and  pains  connected  with  our  skin,  we  should  be  able 


iSHOE 

rMAKES  LIPES  WALK.  BASY^i 


l^eg&rding  Shoes' 
ii\  general 


No  other  portion  of  the 
liuman  body  is  so  tortured. 
In  the  efforts  inade  to  clothe 
and  protect  it,  as  the  Feet. 

The  experience  of  sur- 
Seons  proves  that  a  large 
proportion  of  sprained 
joints,  ruptured  ligaments 
and  fractured  limbs  are  the 
natural  result  of  defective, 
yeaKened,  deformed  feet. 

Shoe  friction  and  inequal> 
Jly  of  pressure  cause  pre- 
mature wear  at  particular 
points,  as  well  as  serious 
discomfort  to  the  feet. 

There  is  no  reason  why 
footwear  should  not  be 
comfortable  as  well  as  styl- 
ish and  have  at  the  same 
time  the  practical  value  of 
icrviceableness 

The  day  of  (he  high- 
f)rlced, custom-made  shoe  is 
over.  Modern  shoe  manu- 
ftcturine  uses  precisefythe 
same  kind  of  materials.made 
up  upon  correct  anatomical 
principles,  and  guaranteed 
to  give  comfon,  together 
vlth  fine  wearing  qualily. 


■.CWIS  A.  CHOSSETT.  INC. 


issett   Shoes 
L  particular 


Crossett  Shoes  fit  the  feet, 
instead  of  making  the  feet 
(it  the  shoes. 

They  support  at  every 
point  the  series  of  arches 
of  which  the  human  fobt  is 
composed— providing  an  in» 
oer  space  which  the  foorex- 
ectly  fills  without  restraint. 

They  go  far  towird  seoui^ 
Ing  a  safe  step,  a  firm  Call 
ind  a  graceful  carriage. 

They  can  be  manurac> 
cured  at  a  low  price  owine 
10  admirable  methods  and 
perfection  of  machinery— 
in  short  they  are  a  typical 
American  product. 

They  have  an  individuali 
Ity  of  design,  and  that  cer> 
tain  character  which  is  the 
essence  of  good  style. 

The  workmanship  and 
finish  of  each  shoe  is  there* 
suit  of  nearly  twenty  yqar* 
of  constant  improvement  la 
materials  and  methods.. 

The  name  and  price  l» 
woven  in  the  strap  al 
the  back  of  every  Crossetl 
Shoe. 

NAKEK..  NOR.TB  itBINGTON.  MASS* 


No.  10 


to  imagine  such  sensations,  and  to  seek  the  pleasant 
and  to  avoid  tlfe  unpleasant.  Some  people  are  very 
deficient  in  imagining  the  sensations  which  we  receive 
from  the  skin,  and,  strange  to  say,  not  a  few  of  these 
deficient  individuals  have  been  put  in  charge  of  the 
advertisements  which  have  to  do  with  these  very  sen- 
sations.    One  of  the  prominent  characteristics  of  all 


80       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

clothing  is  that  it  gives  us  either  a  pleasant  or  an  un- 
pleasant sensation  by  means  of  its  cotitact  with  our 
bodies. 

Shoes  are  sold  for  different  prices;  therefore  the 
price  is  to  be  considered.  They  are  things  that  wear  out 
sooner  or  later;  we  therefore  must  consider  their  dura- 
bility. They  are  things  that  we  see  with  our  eyes; 
therefore  their  appearance — style — must  be  considered. 
Lastly, — but  not  last  considered  by  the  purchaser, — 
shoes  come  into  close  contact  with  our  skins,  and  sensa- 
tions that  are  either  pleasant  or  painful  result ;  we  must 
therefore  consider  the  fit  and  comfort  of  the  shoe.  A 
very  common  deficiency  in  shoe  advertisements  is  found 
in  the  failure  of  the  advertiser  to  imagine  the  comfort 
of  the  shoe  advertised,  and  to  express  it  in  his  argu- 
ment. As  a  typical  advertisement  of  this  sort  consider 
the  advertisement  of  the  Crawford  shoe  (No.  9).  It 
might  well  be  the  advertisement  of  a  leather  pocket- 
book,  if  a  few  insignificant  changes  were  made. 

In  the  advertisement  of  the  Crossett  shoes  (No.  10)  the 
text  matter  is  most  excellent.  The  writer  is  one  who  can 
appreciate  the  comfort  of  a  good-fitting  and  easy  shoe; 
he  has  been  able  to  imagine  the  sensation,  and  he  has 
described  it  so  vividly  that  the  reader  feels  in  imagina- 
tion the  comfort  of  a  Crossett  shoe. 

Omega  Oil  is  a  liniment  that  is  supposed  to  increase 
the  pleasant  sensations  which  we  receive  through  the 
skin.  The  writer  of  this  advertisement  seems  to  have 
been  able  to  imagine  the  uncomfortable  feeling  of  sore 
feet,  and  of  the  comfort  which  his  oil  would  secure. 
The  artist  who  drew  the  sore  feet  (No.  11)  surely  could 
appreciate  the  situation  in  a  striking  manner.  The 
artist  does  not  depict  and  the  author  does  not  describe 
what  he  cannot  imagine. 


APPLICATION  OF  MENTAL  IMAGERY       81 

Omega  Oil  is  not  only  a  thing  which  can  be  applied  to 
and  felt  by  the  skin,  but  it  is  also  a  thing  that  can  be 
seen  and  smelt.     To  many  it  might  seem  a  little  thing 


Omesla  Oil 


The  avera|e  man  weighs  ahouf  140 
pounds  and  the  aversre  woman  about 
120. 

If  yoii  want  to  realize  how  heavy  that 
*.  pick  up  something  about  those  weights 
and  see  now  long  your  hands  and  arms 
«an  bear  the  strain 

•    ff-  you  can  stand  it  a  full  minute,  you 
are  doing  remarkably  well. 

Did  vou  ever  slop  and  think  ll»t  your 
feet  hofd  up  that  big  weight  (or  hours  at 
t  time  every  day  ? 

That  is  why  your  feet  are  sore  and 
tired  at  ni^ht 

That  IS  why  they  ache.  itch,  bum  and 


A  foot-bath  before  retiring  is  helpful 
but  it  does  not  go  far  enough 

The  strained,  tired-out  muscles  aivl 
lignnients  call  for  something  strengtheninft 
just  .is  your  stomach  calls  for  food. 

The  kind  of  strength  needed  for  sorifc 
(ired  feet  is  the  kind  of  strength  to  bt 
found  in  Omega  Oil. 

Give  your  feet  a  good  bathing  in  wanil 
wafer,  and  get  all  the  impurities  out  of  th» 
pores.  Then  rub  the  feet  thoroughly  with 
On)ega  Oil. 

The  Oil  will  go  in  through  the  cleaa 
open  pores,  and  strengthen  and  comfort 
your  feet  m  a  manner  that  will  a-^tonil^ 
you 


I  liivt  b«<i>  trMbim  .lib  «m  »n  lo'  ixt  l»t 

izn 

lirl      1  coniullrc 

..r>l.,:M,o.Om^Oll    By  I.. 

ad'icr  1  itciacd  to  (Ivc  it  i  (riU  |n4  foa*4    I 

>  Icuwik  utrm 

unct  u  uy  su  witboul  uy  j.tn 

o(  Khtni  l»l 

M»  Puiiua. 

. 

ISSJ  Wooft 

raok  Art.  Ba:ttliMn.  MA    | 

Oatf*  OU  l»  pot  for  tvcoibisf  •  Molneoi  a«|bi  w  ••  -prnt  h» 

No.  11 


that  Omega  Oil  is  green,  but  that  single  advertisement, 
"It's  Green"  (No.  12),  has  done  a  great  deal  to  help 
the  readers  to  form  a  distinct  image  of  the  liniment. 
The  man  who  cares  but  little  for  odors  would  not  have 
taken  so  much  space  to  say  that  it  "smells  nice"  (No. 


82       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

13).  In  these  three  advertisements  and  others  like 
them  the  advertiser  of  Omega  Oil  has  shown  his  appre- 
ciation of  the  human  mind  to  which  he  has  been  ap- 

It's  Green 


OmedaOil 


One  peculiar  thing  about 
Omega.  Oil  is  its  green 
color.  Some  people  think  it  is  colored  green  to  make  it 
look  nice,  but  that  is  not  so.  Omega  Oil  is  green  because 
Nature  makes  it  green  It  contains  a  powerful  green 
herb  that  gives  it  its  color,  and  it  is  this  same  herb  that 
Wops  pain  in  pcople',s  bodies.  -There  are  plenty  of  white, 
brown  and  yellow  liniments,  but  there  is  only  one  Omega 
Oil,  and' it  is  green  There  is  nothing  like  Omega  Oil 
for  curing  pain,  just  as  there  is  nothing  like  the  sun  for 
fnkking  rcsl  daylight.  ^ 

No.  12 


pealing.  It  may,  however,  be  questionable  whether  such 
minor  considerations  for  liniment  as  color  and  odor 
should  receive  so  much  emphasis  as  is  given  them  here. 
As  was  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  many  people 
are  deficient  in  certain  forms  of  imagery.    Most  people 


APPLICATION   OF    MENTAL   IMAGERY      83 

can  imagine  with  some  degree  of  satisfaction  how  things 
look.  Not  quite  so  many  can  imagine  how  things  sound 
or  feel.  Very  many  have  difficulty  in  imagining  how 
things  taste  and  smell.    This  would  be  sufficient  ground 

Smells  Nice 


Omega  Oil  is  good  lor  ever>"tluaff  a  I 


No.  13 


Omeda 
Oil 

You  can  tell   by  the 
smell  of  Omega   Ofl. 
that  it  is  different 
from  any  other  lini- 
ment you  ever  saw. 
It  has  a  peculiar 
and  pleasant  odor. 
Besides  being  the 
best  remedy  in  tho 
world  for  stopping 
pains,  it  is  also 
the  nicest  to  use. 
It  is  not  made  of 
turpentine  or  ammo- 
nia, but  the  body  of 
it  is  a  pure  vegeta- 
ble oil.     Into  this 
oil  is  put  four  other 
ingredients,  one  of 
which  is,  a  green 
herb  that  stops  paia 
a  good  deal  on  the 
same  principle  that 
a  puiF  of  wind  blows 
out  a  lamp,  or  water 
quenches  a  fire. 

I  ought  to  b«  good  lot. 


for  appealing  especially  to  visual  images  if  the  commod- 
ity was  primarily  a  thing  of  sight.  When  the  objects 
advertised  are  things  primarily  perceived  by  other  senses 
than  the  eye,  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  awaken 
those  more  difficult  images,  i.e.,  those  of  sound,  touch, 


84      THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVEETISING 

taste,  smell,  etc.  The  man  who  is  blind  and  deaf  is 
greatly  handicapped.  He  cannot  perceive  color  or  hear 
sound,  and  (if  always  blind  and  deaf)  cannot  imagine 
sights  and  sounds.  The  sense  organs  have  been  called 
the  windows  of  the  soul.  The  more  sensations  we  re- 
ceive from  an  object  the  better  we  know  it.  The  func- 
tion of  the  nervous  system  is  to  make  us  aware  of  the 
sights,  sounds,  feelings,  tastes,  etc.,  of  the  objects  in  our 
environment.  The  nervous  system  which  does  not  re- 
spond to  sound  or  to  any  other  sensible  qualities  is 
defective.  Advertisements  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
the  nervous  system  of  the  business  world.  That  adver- 
tisement of  musical  instruments  which  contains  nothing 
to  awaken  images  of  sounds  is  a  defective  advertisement. 
That  advertisement  of  foods  which  awakens  no  images 
of  taste  is  a  defective  advertisement.  As  our  nervous 
system  is  arranged  to  give  us  all  the  possible  sensations 
from  every  object,  so  the  advertisement  which  is  com- 
parable to  the  nervous  system  must  awaken  in  the 
reader  as  many  different  kinds  of  images  as  the  object 
itself  can  excite. 

It  might  be  well  for  a  young  man  who  expects  to 
make  a  profession  of  writing  advertisements  to  make  a 
test  of  his  own  mental  imagery.  If  he  finds  that  he 
is  peculiarly  weak  in  visual  imagery  he  should  seek 
employment  with  a  firm  that  handles  goods  other  than 
those  which  are  particularly  objects  of  sight,  e.g.,  pic- 
tures. The  man  who  cannot  imagine  how  a  musical 
instrument  sounds  should  hesitate  to  write  the  adver- 
tisements of  a  musical  house.  The  man  who  cannot 
imagine  how  foods  taste  will  be  greatly  handicapped  in 
attempting  to  write  advertisements  for  food  products. 
Forms  of  mental  imagery  may,  to  a  limited  extent,  be 
cultivated,  and,  by  giving  special  attention  to  the  sub- 


APPLICATION   OF   MENTAL   IMAGERY      85 

ject,  one  with  a  weak  form  of  imagery  may  greatly  im- 
prove upon  his  former  efforts,  in  which  he  followed  out 
his  natural  bent  without  considering  the  forms  of  mental 
images  which  could  be  appealed  to  by  his  particular 
class  of  goods. 


86      THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISI:NG 

VIII 
ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS 

Every  one  has  wondered  how  it  happens  that  a 
thought  or  idea  has  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  entered 
his  mind.  Not  infrequently  the  particular  idea  had  not 
been  entertained  for  years, — perhaps  it  had  no  apparent 
connection  with  the  present  line  of  thought, — and  yet 
here  it  is,  seemingly  unaltered  and  as  distinct  as  it  had 
been  years  before. 

If  anything  in  the  world  has  tlie  appearance  of  law- 
lessness, it  certainly  is  the  flight  of  thought  in  these 
minds  of  ours.  We  can  go  from  Chicago  to  Peking; 
from  the  present  moment  to  the  building  of  the  pyra- 
mids or  the  creation  of  the  universe.  We  can  jnck  out 
any  object  or  event  included  within  the  borders  of  space 
or  time.  We  can  go  from  any  one  of  these  objects  or 
events  to  any  other  in  an  instant  of  time,  and  whole  mul- 
titudes of  them  may  be  passed  in  review  in  scarcely 
more  than  a  single  second.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
imagine  anything  less  confined  and  apparently  less  sub- 
ject to  laws  than  the  human  mind. 

Furthermore,  no  two  minds  are  alike.  Men  differ  as 
to  facial  expression  in  a  much  less  degree  than  in  the 
manner  in  which  they  think. 

However  hopeless  the  task  may  seem  at  first  sight,  it ' 
is  nevertheless  true  that  from  the  time  of  Aristotle  down 
to  the  present  day  great  thinkers  have  been  engaged  in 
trying  to  find  laws  according  to  which  the  mind  acts. 
They  have  not  been  content  with  the  surprise  which  they 
have  felt  when  an  idea  has  unexpectedly  entered  their 
minds,  but  they  have  gone  further  and  sought  for  the 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS  87 

laws  which  regulate  this  sudden  appearance.  Much 
progress  has  been  made,  and  the  mind  is  gradually  being 
recognized  as  consistent  and  law-abiding  as  are  all  other 
things  in  the  universe. 

In  many  cases  we  can  readily  see  why  we  are  think- 
ing of  particular  things  at  a  specified  time.  As  I  walk 
down  a  busy  street,  unless  I  am  oblivious  to  my  sur- 
roundings my  thought  is  determined  for  me  by  the 
objects  which  sm^round  me.  My  eye  is  caught  by  an 
artistically  decorated  window  in  which  sporting  goods 
are  displayed.  My  mind  is  fully  occupied  for  the  time 
with  the  perception  of  these  articles.  The  perception 
of  one  object  is  superseded  by  the  perception  of  an- 
other, and  in  most  cases  nothing  but  the  present  objects 
are  thouglit  of,  and  this  perception  of  present  objects 
does  not  recall  to  my  mind  any  objects  which  I  liave 
seen  at  other  times.  It  happens,  however,  that  as  I 
see  a  sweater  I  think  of  the  sweater  which  I  used  to 
wear,  and  then  of  the  circumstances  which  attended  its 
destruction.  My  mind  is  next  occupied  with  the  per- 
ception of  clothing,- millinery,  etc.,  as  these  objects,  one 
after  the  otlier,  meet  the  direct  gaze  of  my  eyes.  At 
the  sight  of  shoes  I  am  reminded  of  my  need  for  a 
new  pair;  then  of  the  particular  make  of  shoes  which 
I  ordinarily  wear;  then  of  the  pair  which  I  purchased 
a  few  months  ago  and  of  the  circumstances  attending 
the  purchase.  So  I  may  go  on  for  hours,  and  in  a  large 
part  my  thoughts  will  be  limited  to  the  perception 
of  objects  and  events  which  surround  me,  but  in  cer- 
tain cases  {e.g.y  sweater  and  shoes)  the  perception  sug- 
gests a  previous  experience.  In  the  case  of  simple  per- 
ception the  mind  seems  to  act  under  the  ordinary  laws 
of  cause  and  effect.  The  objects  on  the  street  affect 
me   and    the   perceptions   are    the    result.      What    my 


88      THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

thoughts  shall  be  are  determined  for  me  by  the  external 
objects  which  affect  my  sense  organs. 

Under  other  circumstances  the  mind  seems  to  be  in- 
dependent of  surrounding  objects  and  to  supply  the 
food  for  thought  from  former  experiences.  This  is 
especially  true  in  dreams,  sleepless  nights,  and  reveries.  - 
Its  working  is  clearly  seen  in  all  cases  where  we  are 
not  distracted  by  external  objects  and  do  not  attempt 
to  direct  the  thought  along  any  particular  line.  Some 
time  ago  I  read  President  Roosevelt's  decision  concern- 
ing the  Sampson- Schley  controversy.  After  retiring  for 
the  night  I  found  that  I  was  thinking  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  New  Orleans,  the  Boer  war,  an  Evanston 
dining-room,  the  siege  of  Peking,  the  recent  action  of 
the  dowager  empress,  the  American  army  and  navy, 
and  then  of  the  Sampson- Schley  controversy  again.  The 
interesting  part  of  each  idea  tends  to  suggest,  or  to 
recall  to  the  mind  some  previous  experience  with  which 
this  interesting  part  had  been  previously  associated. 
As  I  thought  of  the  Sampson- Schley  controversy,  the 
interesting  thing  just  then  was  that  it  had  been  re- 
viewed by  President  Roosevelt.  The  interesting  thing 
about  President  Roosevelt  just  then  was  that  he  had 
hunted  in  the  Rockies.  The  interesting  thing  about 
that  was  that  he  had  ridden  a  horse.  In  a  similar  man- 
ner the  horse  suggested  New  Orleans,  where  recent  ship- 
ments of  horses  had  been  made  to  South  Africa.  This 
suggested  the  Boer  war,  this  a  conversation  on  war 
by  a  young  lady  who  had  returned  to  Evanston  from 
China.  She  suggested  Peking ;  Peking  suggested  the  dow- 
ager empress;  she  suggested  her  recent  actions;  these 
changed  conditions  suggested  the  American  army  and 
navy ;  and  they  suggested  Sampsoji  and  Schley,  and  they 
the  controversy. 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS  89 

As  I  walk  along  the  street  the  action  of  my  mind, 
even  when  not  conlined  to  bare  perceptions,  seems  dif- 
ferent from  its  action  on  the  sleepless  nighf.  As  far 
as  the  association  of  ideas  is  concerned,  however,  the 
action  is  practically  identical.  In  the  first  case  the 
perceptions  of  external  objects  (sweater  and  shoes) 
are  effective  in  calling  up  ideas  or  experiences  with 
which  they  had  formerly  been  associated.  In  the  sec- 
ond case  the  ideas  are  effective  in  calling  up  other  ideas 
with  which  they  had  formerly  been  associated. 

The  statement  of  the  law  as  it  applies  to  both  cases 
and  expressed  in  general  terms  is:  "'Whenever  there  is 
in  consciousness  one  element  of  a  previous  experience, 
this  one  element  tends  to  bring  hack  the  entire  experi- 
ence.^^ Things  thought  together  oj  in  immediate  succes- 
sion become  ^'associated,"  or  welded  together  so  that 
when  one  returns  it  tends  to  recall  the  others.  The 
sight  of  a  shoe  suggested  the  entire  "shoe  experience," 
in  which  I  had  entered  a  store,  purchased  a  pair  of 
shoes,  carried  on  a  conversation  with  the  proprietor, 
etc.  The  thought  of  President  Roosevelt  suggested 
an  entire  "Roosevelt  experience,"  i.e.,  President  Roose- 
velt mounted  on  a  horse,  attired  in  a  particular  costume, 
amid  particular  scenery,  etc. 

But  I  had  had  many  other  "shoe  experiences"  and 
many  other  "President  Roosevelt  experiences."  How 
did  it  happen  that  the  shoe  suggested  the  particular 
shoe  experience  which  it  did,  and  not  tennis  shoes  which 
I  had  purchased  recently,  or  the  wooden  shoes  which 
I  had  examined  years  before?  Why  did  not  President 
Roosevelt  suggest  his  trip  to  see  his  sick  son,  or  his 
African  exploration,  or  his  death,  or  his  literary  pro- 
ductions? Each  "one  element  in  a  previous  experience" 
has  been  one  element  in  many  previous  experiences. 


90       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Which  one  of  these  previous  experiences  will  be  sug- 
gested by  the  "one  element"  is  the  problem  which  is 
of  interest  to  us. 

If  we  knew  a  person's  past  history  completely,  and 
if  we  knew  the  present  external  stimulus  and  the  pres- 
ent condition  of  his  mind,  we  could  tell  with  some  de- 
gree of  certainty  what  the  next  idea  would  be  which 
is  to  enter  his  mind.  The  laws  upon  which  this  certainty 
is  based  are  the  three  following : 

The  first  law  is  that  of  habit  based  on  repetition. 

According  to  this  law  the  idea  next  to  enter  the  mind 
is  the  one  which  has  habitually  been  associated  with 
[the  interesting  part  of]  the  one  present  to  the  mind. 
The  sight  of  a  shoe,  the  printed  word  "shoe,"  the  spoken 
word  "shoe,"  and  the«felt  need  of  a  shoe,  each  calls  to 
my  mind  this  particular  make  of  shoes  with  which  I 
have  been  familiar  for  years.  I  have  perceived  a  shoe 
as  a  "Douglas";  I  have  seen  "Douglas"  and  "shoe" 
printed  together;  I  have  heard  "Douglas"  and  "shoe" 
spoken  together;  I  have  seen  the  portrait  of  Mr.  Doug- 
las and  a  cut  of  his  shoe  appearing  together;  I  have 
met  my  need  for  shoes  wdth  a  "Douglas."  All  these 
associations  have  been  frequent  and  have  become  so 
welded  together  with  constant  use  that  when  shoe  enters 
my  mind,  it  draws  its  habitual  associate,  Douglas, 
with  it. 

The  second  law  is  that  of  recency. 

If  two  things  have  been  recently  connected  in  the 
mindy  when  one  is  thought  of  again  it  suggests  the  other 
also.  One  day  I  read  and  thought  of  the  exportation  of 
horses  from  New  Orleans.  I  do  not  know  that  horses 
and  New  Orleans  were  ever  associated  in  my  mind  but 
this  single  time,  but  the  next  day  as  I  thought  of  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  as  mounted  on  a  horse,  the  thought  of 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS  91 

horse  immediately  suggested  its  recent  associate,  New 
Orleans.  The  recency  of  this  association  made  it  ef- 
fective. If  I  had  read  of  this  exportation  a  month  before 
instead  of  on  the  preceding  day,  it  is  not  probable  that 
this  associate  would  have  been  suggested. 

The  third  law  is  that  of  vividness  or  intensity. 

If  my  present  thought  has  been  associated  with  a 
thousand  different  ohjects,  that  one  will  he  suggested 
with  which  it  has  been  most  vividly  associated. 

When  I  thought  of  the  Boer  war,  war  suggested  the 
siege  of  Peking  because  the  lady  who  had  returned  from 
China  described  the  siege  of  Peking  in  such  a  thrilling 
manner — war  and  the  siege  of  Peking  were  so  intensely 
associated — that  when  I  thought  of  war,  war  suggested 
this  particular  association.  The  association  between 
war  and  Peking  was  not  only  vivid,  but  was  also  habit- 
ual and  recent,  even  if  these  latter  elements  do  not  seem 
so  prominent. 

Psychologists  are  practically  agreed  that  these  are 
the  three  special  laws  of  the  association  of  ideas  and  that 
the  "idea  which  shall  come  next"  conforms  to  these  three 
simple  formulae. 

The  law;  of  habit  is  very  much  more  important  than 
the  other  two.  When  one  element  has  been  associated 
with  one  experience  habitually,  with  another  recently, 
and  with  still  another  vividly,  the  chances  are  that  the 
habitual  experience  (associate)  will  be  recalled.  If, 
however,  the  one  element  has  been  associatecj  with  a 
certain  experience  habitually,  recently,  and  vividly,  this 
one  element  will  certainly  call  up  this  particular  ex- 
perience and  none  of  the  multitudes  of  other  experi- 
ences with  which  it  had  been  associated. 

The  application  of  all  this  to  advertising  is  direct. 
The  merchant  desires  so  to  advertise  his  goods  that 


92       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

his  particular  brand  or  article  will  be  the  only  one  sug- 
gested whenever  his  class  of  goods  is  thought  of. 

Let  the  reader  of  this  article  test  the  truthfulness 
of  the  preceding  analysis.  Test  it  and  see  whether  the 
laws  of  habit,  recency,  and  vividness  cover  all  the  cases 
of  association  of  ideas  in  your  own  mind.  Think  over 
your  possible  needs  in  wearing  appareh  Where  would 
you  go  to  supply  that  need,  and  what  quality  or  make 
would  you  get?  As  you  think  of  tliese  possible  needs 
what  names,  brands,  or  qualities  are  suggested?  Now 
analyze  these  ideas  and  see  if  they  do  not  all  conform 
to  the  three  law^s  given  above.  You  are  probably  sur- 
prised to  see  how  many  of  the  ideas  are  those  which 
you  have  habitually  associated  with  that  class  of  goods. 
Try  the  same  experiment  with  articles  of  food,  luxury, 
investment,  etc.,  and  you  will  be  convinced  that  the 
advertisements  which  are  the  most  often  seen  have  a 
great  advantage  over  those  which  are  less  often  seen. 

Long  years  ago  you  formed  the  habit  of  putting  your 
coat  on  in  a  particular  way.  Perhaps  you  put  the  right 
sleeve  on  first,  perhaps  the  left.  You  have  formed  the 
habit  of  putting  it  on  just  one  way  and  you  will  put  it 
on  just  that  way  as  long  as  you  live.  If  you  put  on 
the  right  sleeve  first  this  morning,  you  will  put  it  on 
the  same  way  to-morrow  morning  and  every  other  morn- 
ing. Of  course  you  could  change  and  put  the  left  sleeve 
on  first,  but  you  won't  do  it.  Tlie  mind  forms  habits 
of  thought  and  when  they  are  once  established  they  are 
controlling  factors  in  the  action  of  the  mind.  As  a  boy 
I  associated  certain  names  with  certain  articles  of  mer- 
chandise. I  saw  a  particular  soap  advertised  in  various 
ways.  Perhaps  it  was  used  in  my  home — I  am  not  sure 
about  that.  This  name  and  soap  were  so  habitually 
associated  in  my  mind  as  a  boy  that  when  I  think  of 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS  93 

soap  this  particular  soap  is  the  kind  I  am  most  likely 
to  think  of  even  to  the  present  time,  although  it  has 
not  been  called  to  my  mind  so  often  of  recent  years  as 
other  kinds  of  soap.  As  far  as  the  association  of  ideas 
is  concerned,  tliat  advertisement  is  the  most  effective 
which  is  most  often  thought  of  in  connection  with  the 
line  of  goods  advertised,  but  the  associations  formed  in 
youth  are  more  effective  than  those  formed  in  later 
years.  Their  effectiveness  is  lasting  and  will  still  have 
influence  as  long  as  the  person  lives.  Hence  goods  of  a 
constant  and  recurrent  use  might  well  be  advertised  in 
home  or  even  in  children's  papers,  and  the  advertise- 
ments might  be  so  constructed  that  they  would  be  appre- 
ciated by  children. 

Whenever  1  think  of  photographical  instruments  I 
think  of  one  particular  make  of  cameras.  If  I  should 
feel  a  need  of  buying  a  camera,  I  would  find  immediately 
that  I  was  thinking  of  this  particular  make.  If  I  were 
called  upon  to  recommend  a  camera,  this  one  would  al- 
ways suggest  itself  to  me  first.  It  is  suggested  imme- 
diately and  involuntarily.  In  my  particular  case  this 
advertisement  of  cameras  is  successful  and  for  me  has  a 
decided  prestige  over  all  other  cameras.  If  I  try  to 
think  out  the  reason  why  this  particular  one  is  sug- 
gested whenever  I  need  or  think  of  cameras,  it  seems  to 
me  that  it  is  because  it  complies  with  both  the  laws  of 
habit  and  vividness.  I  do  not  remember  to  have  noticed 
any  advertisement  of  cameras  recently,  nor  have  I  had 
any  occasion  to  think  of  tliem  for  some  time.  I  do 
know,  however,  that  for  several  years  I  saw  this  ad- 
vertisement repeatedly — therefore  it  is  with  me  an 
habitual  association.  I  also  remember  that  at  one  time 
I  read  a  booklet  published  by  this  company  and  that 
it  impressed  me  profoundly— therefore  it  is  for  me  a 
vivid  association. 


94       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

If  you  made  the  test  recommended  above,  you  found 
that  in  some  eases  goods  were  suggested  that  were  not 
the  ones  habitually  thought  of,  but  those  which  had  been 
recently  in  the  mind.  Perhaps  they  had  only  been 
brought  to  your  attention  this  single  time.  Although 
the  effectiveness  of  habitual  associations  is  all  the  more 
lasting  the  longer  the  advertisement  is  maintained,  it 
gradually  diminishes  unless  the  repetition  is  continued. 
The  recent  associates  are  brought  back  to  the  mind  with 
the  greatest  readiness,  and  in  some  cases  they  prevail 
over  the  merely  habitual.  This  emi:)hasizes  the  necessity 
of  keeping  up  the  repetition  to  make  the  habitual  most 
effective,  to  form  the  most  recent  associate,  and  thus 
take  advantage  of  the  prestige  gained  by  former  adver- 
tising. Only  by  frequent  advertising  are  the  habitual 
associations  formed  and  the  recent  associates  constantly 
made. 

You  also  noticed  in  your  experiments  that  certain 
goods  were  suggested  of  which  you  had  not  recently 
thought  and  of  which,  perhaps,  you  had  thought  but  once 
in  your  life.  This  one  time  you  had  seen  a  very  striking 
advertisement,  or  had  heard  the  goods  highly  recom- 
mended by  a  friend,  or  had  seen  and  used  the  goods. 
For  instance,  one  vivid  and  intense  association  of  hats 
and  Smith  was  so  strong  that  at  the  very  thought  of 
hats  Smith's  name  presented  itself  too.  You  thought 
of  Smith  and  hats  at  the  same  time,  and  the  two  thoughts 
were  so  vivid  that  they  became  welded  together  by  the 
white  heat  of  the  mind,  and  so  when  hats  are  in  the 
mind  Smith  must  come  with  them.  This  show.s  that 
sometimes  doing  extraordinary  things  in  advertising 
may  succeed  when  it  is  desired  to  make  a  great  im- 
pression and  to  have  the  associations  formed  under  this 
white  heat.     It  may  be  admitted  that  this  sort  of  ad- 


'    ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS  95 

vertising  has  been  successful  in  some  cases.  The  law 
is  that  the  mind  is  in  general  gradually  molded.  Lines 
of  thought  are  developed  and  not  suddenly  formed.  The 
advertiser  who  attempts  suddenly  to  take  the  world  by 
storm  has  "to  go  against  nature"  and  is  consequently 
at  a  very  great  disadvantage. 

The  entire  subject  of  association  of  ideas  may  be 
made  clearer  and  more  definite  if,  in  conclusion,  its 
action  in  another  concrete  case  is  given.  For  years  I 
have  seen  the  statement  that  the  Burlington  Railroad 
goes  to  Colorado.  I  have  thus  thought  Burlington  and 
Colorado  together,  and  every  time  they  have  entered  my 
mind  together  they  have  become  more  tightly  welded 
together,  or  associated,  until  now  Colorado  is  no  sooner 
in  my  mind  than  I  find  that  Burlington  is  also  there. 
When  I  analyze  this  association  to  see  how  it  has  been 
formed,  I  find,  in  the  first  place,  that  for  years  I  have 
seen  the  words  Burlington  and  Colorado  together.  I 
have  thought  the  two  ideas  together  repeatedly,  and  the 
association  has  become  habitual.  In  the  second  place, 
I  find  that  but  yesterday  I  saw  the  words  Burlington 
and  Colorado  together  and  thought  the  two  thoughts 
together  and  so  the  association  was  recent.  In  the  third 
place,  I  remember  that  some  weeks  ago  I  had  been  at- 
tracted by  the  Burlington  advertisement  in  which  a 
book  about  Colorado  was  offered  for  six  cents.  This 
advertisement  impressed  me,  and  I  gave  it  a  large 
amount  of  attention  or  active  thought  and  so  the  asso- 
ciation became  vivid  or  intense. 

If  the  merchant  can  make  his  name  or  brand  to  be 
the  habitual,  recent,  and  vivid  associate  with  his  class 
of  goods^  he  will  have  such  a  pfestige  over  all  others 
that  his  success  seems  assured.  The  securing  of  this  re- 
sult should  be  one  of  the  aims  of  the  wise  advertiser. 


96      THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISING 


IX 

FUSION 

Some  years  ago  I  was  spending  my  Christmas  vaca- 
tion at  my  old  home.  One  morning  I  was  sitting  in  the 
library  reading  short  stories.  While  I  was  reading,  jny 
sister  went  to  the  piano  and  began  playing  some  of  the 
tunes  which  she  had  played  years  before,  and  which  I 
had  particularly  enjoyed.  I  did  not  notice  the  fact  that 
she  was  playing  at  all,  but  I  thought  the  stories  were 
peculiarly  beautiful.  The  next  day  I  remarked  about 
them  and  had  occasion  to  refer  to  them.  I  was  greatly 
disappointed  upon  reading  them  the  second  time  to  find 
that  they  were  very  commonplace  and  that  ordinarily 
they  would  not  have  pleased  me  at  all.  If  I  liad  paid 
strict  attention  to  the  short  stories  alone,  they  would 
have  proved  themselves  to  be  very  uninteresting.  As  it 
was,  I  paid  partial  attention  to  each  and  fused  the  music 
and  the  reading  into  one  total  impression  which  was 
extremely  pleasing. 

On  certain  occasions  when  friends  are  together  all 
have  a  jolly  good  time.  A  spirit  of  good  fellowship 
reigns,  and  every  one  is  happy  and  contented.  The 
stories  told  are  appreciated  and  applauded.  The  jokes 
all  seem  so  fitting  and  pertinent.  Even  if  they  have 
been  heard  before,  they  are  so  well  told  and  so  apropos 
that  they  are  as  good  as  new.  The  next  day  one  is  often 
chagrined  when  he  tries  to  relate  the  stories  and  jokes, 
and  to  tell  why  he  had  enjoyed  the  occasion  so  well.  The 
stories  may  have  been  mere  commonplaces  and  the  jokes 


FUSION  97 

nothing  but  old  standbj^s,  but  tliey  did  not  stand  alone ; 
they  were  enforced  and  improved  by  the  spirit  of  good 
fellowship  which  pervaded  the  company.  The  place, 
the  stories,  the  jokes,  the  refreshments,  the  amusement, 
and  the  occasion  all  united  their  influences  to  make  a 
total  impression.  They  were  fused  together,  and  their 
total-product  was  what  had  so  delighted  us.  Any  one 
of  these  things  taken  singly  would  have  been  insufficient 
to  produce  an3\  pleasant  result,  but  when  taken  collec- 
tively each  shines  in  a  borrowed  light. 

If  I  hold  a  lead-pencil  vertically  in  my  hand  directly 
in  front  of  my  nose,  the  name  of  the  manufacturer 
printed  on  the  pencil  will  be  barely  visible,  if  it  is  on  the 
extreme  right  side  of  the  pencil.  If,  however,  I  close  my 
right  eye,  the  name  disappears.  If  I  make  a  mark  on  the 
pencil  directly  opposite  the  name  of  the  manufacturer 
and  hold  the  pencil  as  before,  both  the  mark  and  the 
name  are  visible.  If  I  close  the  right  eye,  the  name 
disappears.  If  I  close  the  left  eye,  the  mark  disappears. 
As  I  look  at  the  pencil  with  my  right  eye  I  get  a  slightly 
different  impression  than  I  do  when  I  look  with  my  left 
eye,  and  vice  versa.  We  are  not  conscious  of  these  two 
partial  impressions,  for  we  fuse  them  into  one  total  im- 
pression, which  gives  us  a  better  perception  of  the  pencil 
than  is  contained  in  the  mathematical  sum  of  the  two 
partial  perceptions.  A  discussion  of  the  result  of  this 
fusion  of  the  two  impressions  made  upon  the  two  eyes 
would  be  out  of  place  at  this  point,  but  it  might  be 
remarked  that  among  these  results  are  accurate  judg- 
ments of  the  distance  and  of  tlie  thickness  of  the  pencil. 

At  any  point  of  time  we  may  be  receiving  impressions 
of  sight  through  the  eyes,  impressions  of  sound  through 
the  ears,  impressions  of  hunger  or  thirst  from  the  body, 
and  at  the  same  time  we  may  be  thinking  of  former 


98       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

experiences.  All  these  impressions,  sensations,  ideas, 
etc.,  are  fused  together  and  have  no  separate  existence. 
Each  plays  a  part  in  determining  the  whole  conscious 
impression  or  condition,  but  the  parts  do  not  exist  alone. 
It  is  a  general  law  of  psychology  that  all  things  tend  to 
fuse  and  only  those  things  are  analyzed  that  must  he 
analyzed.  In  the  beginning  we  perceive  objects  as  con- 
crete wholes  and  then  later  analyze  the  wholes  into 
parts.  If  the  first  animal  which  a  child  sees  should  be 
a  dog,  it  would  see  the  dog  as  a  very  different  thing  from 
what  it  would  later  appear  to  him.  It  would  be  a  dog, 
but  his  idea  of  it  would  be  so  indefinite  that  he  would 
not  notice  whether  it  had  four  or  six  legs,  whether  it  had 
ears  or  trunk,  nose  or  bill,  or  whether  it  was  white  or 
black.  By  later  experience  the  child  would  learn  that 
the  dog  was  of  a  particular  color,  had  four  legs,  two 
ears,  that  it  barked,  ate,  and  that  it  had  certain  other 
peculiarities  and  characteristics.  The  expert  in  natural 
history  and  the  dog  fancier  each  notice  certain  things 
about  the  dog  thiat  the  rest  of  humanity  never  sees  at  all. 
We  grasp  everything  as  a  concrete  whole  first,  and  then 
by  later  experience  we  analyze  this  whole  and  add  to 
it.  The  point  to  be  emphasized  is  that  we  do  not  first 
perceive'  the  parts  and  unite  them  to  form  the  greater 
wholes,  hut  that  we  first  perceive  the  wholes  and 
only  after  the  process  of  analysis  has  heen  com- 
pleted do  ice  perceive  the  parts.  There  are  cer- 
tain products  of  fusion  which  by  most  of  us  are  never 
analyzed  at  all.  This  is  the  case  with  the  sensations 
which  we  receive  whenever  we  breathe.  With  every 
breath  the  diaphragm  contracts  and  expands,  the 
muscles  raise  and  lower  the  ribs,  the  lungs  receive  and 
discharge  a  volume  of  air,  the  air  passages  in  the  nose 
and  windpipe  enlarge  and  contract.     All  these  play  a 


FUSION  99 

part  in  making  the  total  sensation  which  we  call  breath- 
ing, but  we  cannot  with  ease  analyze  the  different  parts. 
They  are  fused  together,  and  as  it  would  be  of  no  par- 
ticular benefit  to  analyze  the  product  we  have  never 
done  so,  and  we  never  would  have  known  that  the  feeling 
was  the  product  of  these  elements  unless  we  had 
reasoned  it  out  first. 

We  know  of  no  object  which  is  independent  of  all 
other  things.  In  fact,  the  value  of  all  objects  depends 
upon  the  relationships  which  they  have  to  other  things. 
We  think  of  things  only  in  their  relations,  and  these 
relationships  fuse  and  constitute  the  object  as  we  know 
it.  Anthracite  or  bituminous  coal,"  yellow  clay  and 
black  loam,  can  all  be  thought  of  as  pure  and  clean,  but 
under  certain  conditions  they  become  dirt.  None  of 
these  are  dirt  in  themselves,  but  in  certain  abnormal 
positions  they  are  nothing  but  filth.  When  bituminous 
coal  is  on  the  face  of  the  coal  heaver  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  think  of  it  as  coal.  It  has  ceased  to  be  coal  and 
has  become  dirt  because  of  the  abnormal  environment 
into  which  it  has  come. 

The  manner  in  which  the  environment  fuses  with  an 
article  and  determines  its  value  is  well  illustrated  by 
food  in  a  restaurant.  The  food  may  be  of  the  very  best 
quality  and  the  preparation  may  have  been  faultless,  yet 
if  the  service  is  poor, — if  the  waiter's  linen  is  dirty  and 
his  manner  slovenly, — the  food  does  not  taste  good  and 
is  not  appetizing.  You  may  reason  out  that  the  waiter 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  preparation  of  the  food  and 
that  his  linen  has  not  come  into  contact  with  it,  but  all 
your  reasoning  will  do  you  but  little  good.  The  idea  of 
dirty  linen  and  this  particular  food  are  in  your  mind 
indissolubly  united,  and  now,  instead  of  thinking  of  food 
in  the  abstract,  you  are  compelled  to  think  of  food  in  this 


100       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

particular  relationship,  and  the  result  is  anything  but 
appetizing. 

The  same  thing  is  illustrated  in  all  places  of  business. 
Stores  and  offices  have  a  tone  or  atmosphere  about  them, 
and  everything  they  have  to  offer  is  seen  through  this 
atmosphere.  I  heard  a  gentleman  say  recently  that  he 
had  gone  to  a  particular  store  to  bu}^  a  certain  article. 
The  store  was  recommended  to  him  and  he  was  convinced 
that  it  was  the  best  place  to  buy  the  merchandise  desired. 
When  he  entered  the  store  he  found  such  a  shoddy  tone 
to  the  entire  establishment  that  he  could  not  believe  that 
the  goods  which  were  shown  him  were  desirable.  If  he 
could  have  seen  the  goods  in  another  store  he  would 
have  purchased  them  at  once,  but  he  could  not  convince 
himself  that  the  goods  shown  him  there  were  what  he 
wanted,  so  he  left  without  purchasing  them.  We  are 
not  able  to  look  at  things  impartially  and  abstractly,  but 
we  judge  of  everything  in  the  light  of  its  environment — 
it  fuses  with  its  environment  and  the  environment  be- 
comes a  part  of  it. 

The  principle  of  fusion  is  a  subject  which  should  be 
carefully  considered  in  placing  an  advertisement.  If 
we  could  think  quite  analytically  and  see  the  advertise- 
ment just  as  it  is,  and  as  a  thing  independent  of  its 
environment,  it  might  be  profitable  to  place  our  adver- 
tisements on  garbage  boxes  and  in  cheap  and  disrepu- 
table publications.  As  we  are  constructed,  however,  such 
a  course  would  be  suicidal,  even  for  a  house  dealing  in 
disreputable  and  cheap  articles.  The  medium  gives  a 
tone  of  its  own  to  all  tJie  advertisements  contained  in  it. 
Personally  I  feel  inclined  to  respect  any  firm  that  ad- 
vertises in  a  high-class  magazine,  and  unless  there  is 
some  particular  reason  to  the  contrary  am  willing  to 
trust  its  honesty.     I  have  always  regarded  handbills  as 


Fusio:^  ,  \  \   _  101 

cheap  and  irresponsible,  and  usually  think  of  tlie  goods 
advertised  in  this  way  as  belonging  to  the  same  category. 

In  tlie  course  of  a  conversation,  a  very  intelligent  lady 
recently  said  to  me  that  she  never  read  the  advertise- 
ments in  any  of  the  magazines  excepting  in  her  home 
religious  paper.  Here  she  read  not  only  all  the  reading 
matter,  but  all  the  advertisements  as  well.  I  asked  her 
why  she  read  these  advertisements,  and  she  said  that 
she  knew  they  could  be  depended  upon.  She  had  the 
utmost  confidence  in  the  editor  and  believed  that  he 
knew  every  firm  advertising,  and  that  by  accepting  its 
advertisement  and  publishing  it  he  thereby  gave  it  his 
stamp  of  approval.  No  advertisement  appearing  in  this 
periodical  w^as  compelled  to  stand  on  its  own  merit 
alone,  so  far  as  she  was  concerned,  but  had  added  to  it 
the  confidence  inspired  by  this  publication.  The  adver- 
tisement and  her  confidence  fused  and  formed  a  whole 
in  which  the  lady  never  suspected  that  any  other  element 
entered  than  those  which  were  in  the  advertisement 
itself.  The  lady  referred  to  did  not  read  the  advertise- 
ments in  other  magazines  as  a  usual  thing.  I  have  seen 
her  turn  over  the  advertising  pages  of  other  magazines 
to  see  whether  there  was  anything  there  that  interested 
her.  She  reads  the  advertisements  in  her  favorite  maga- 
zine and  merely  looks  over  the  others. 

In  choosing  the  publications  in  which  he  should  place 
his  advertisement,  the  advertiser  should  not  only  con- 
sider the  circulation  and  the  kind  of  circulation,  but  he 
should  also  consider  the  tone  which  each  publication 
would  add  to  his  particular  advertisement.  It  is  well  to 
have  a  large  number  of  persons  read  your  advertisement ; 
it  is  better  to  have  those  read  it  who  are  interested  in  it 
and  have  the  means  to  purchase  the  goods  advertised; 
but  it  is  still  better  to  have  a  large  number  of  the  right 


102       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

kind  of  persons  see  your  advertisement  in  a  publication 
which  adds  confidence  and  recommends  it  favorably  to 
your  prospective  customers.  Your  advertisement  will, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  fuse  with  the  publication  in 
which  it  appears,  and  the  product  will  not  be  your  adver- 
tisement as  it  was  prepared  by  you,  but  as  it  comes  out 
of  the  mold  into  which  you  inserted  it. 

The  statement  that  a  man  is  known  by  the  company 
he  keeps  is  not  often  challenged,  and  yet  the  statement 
would  have  been  equally  true  if  asserted  of  an  adver- 
tisement. If  a  man  is  seen  frequently  in  the  company 
of  rascals,  we  think  at  once  that  he  has  become  a  rascal, 
but  do  not  suppose  that  he  has  reformed  his  associates. 
The  honorable  man  loses  his  reputation  by  associating 
with  dishonorable  persons.  An  honest  firm  which  ad- 
vertises in  a  disreputable  sheet  and  brings  its  adver- 
tisement into  association  with  advertisements  of  a  dis- 
reputable character  lays  itself  open  to  suspicion.  The 
firm  may  be  so  well  known  that  it  would  not  be  greatly 
injured  by  such  a  course,  and  it  might  by  its  presence 
raise  the  standard  of  the  other  advertisements.  Such 
a  work  of  philanthropy  is  too  expensive  and  dangerous 
to  recommend  itself  to  the  better  known  firms.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  disreputable  firm  should  place  its  ad- 
vertisement in  a  high-grade  publication  and  among 
honest  advertisers,  it  would  for  a  time  at  least  enjoy 
the  confidence  inspired  by  the  publication  and  by  the 
other  advertisements.  Every  honest  firm  which  adver^ 
tises  should  insist,  however,  that  all  dishonest  advertise- 
ments be  rejected,  for,  unless  this  is  done,  the  honest 
men  lose  and  the  dishonest  ones  gain.  The  advertise- 
ments of  a  publication  are  in  the  mind  of  the  public  all 
classed  together,  and  if  it  is  known  that  one  of  them 
cannot  be  trusted,  all  are  brought  into  disrepute. 


FUSION  103 

Because  of  this  principle  of  fusion^  it  is  imperative 
that  the  advertiser  should  see  that  the  make-up  of  the 
publication  is  not  detrimental  to  his  particular  adver- 
tisement. Your  advertisement  would  be  injured,  if,  in 
the  make-up,  your  advertisement  of  diamonds  was  placed 
among  advertisements  of  a  questionable  character.  If 
I  should  see  an  advertisement  of  an  investment  scheme 
that  guaranteed  unusually  large  profits,  I  would  sus- 
pect fraud  at  once  and  would  assume  a  skeptical  atti- 
tude. If  the  next  instant  I  should  read  your  advertise- 
ment of  diamonds,  I  would  be  suspicious  and  would 
hardly  know  why  I  was  so.  If  the  next  moment  I  should 
read  the  advertisement  of  a  medicine  that  cured  all  sorts 
of  incurable  diseases,  my  suspicions  would  be  confirmed, 
and  I  would  be  sure  that  your  diamonds  were  paste.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  I  should  see  your  advertisement 
placed  among  those  which  I  knew  to  be  reliable,  I  would 
be  inclined  to  classify  yours  with  the  others,  and  would 
think  that  it  was  at  least  worth  while  to  investigate  the 
matter. 

The  cut  here  shown  (No.  1)  is  a  good  illustration  of 
the  violation  of  the  proper  consideration  of  the  principle 
of  fusion  in  the  make-up  of  the  advertisements  of  a  daily 
paper.  In  a  Chicago  daily  for  June  22,  1902,  appeared 
three  partial  columns  giving  announcements  of  deaths 
and  burials.  Inserted  in  the  middle  column  was  this 
advertisement  for  Dr.  Sleight's  fat-reducing  tablets.  It 
might  be  said  that  this  advertisement  would  attract 
attention  because  of  its  position,  but  the  effect  of  the 
atmosphere  of  death  and  burials  upon  the  fat-reducing 
tablets  is  too  apparent  to  need  comment. 

Many  of  those  who  choose  illustrations  for  their  ad- 
vertisements follow  the  philosophy  of  the  Irish  boy  who 
said  that  he  liked  to  stub  his  toe  because  it  felt  so  good 


104       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

when  it  stopped  hurting.  Many  of  us  are  unable  to  see 
how  the  boy  had  made  any  gain  after  it  was  all  over,  but 
he  was  satisfied  and  that  was  sufftcient.  The  philosophic 
disciples  of  the  Irish  boy  are  found  in  advertisers  who 
have  certain  things  to  dispose  of  which  will  not  do  cer- 
tain harmful  things.  First  they  choose  an  illustration 
which  will  make  you  believe  that  what  they  have  to  sell 


DEATHS- 

BXL1,MAN--Imie  18,  1B02.  Bntlim  L,  fcelsVM 
wife  of  Aodrew  Bellm&n  ftnd  mother  of  Mrs. 
Hkmie    fiuneilzke,    £dwftrd.    JohD    uid    Cbailet 

SV^^raJ  to-^a;  at  12  o'doeli  from  her  lata  Te9ldenc«, 

mis  BUU  It.,  to  Gnceluid. 
BEST— Jacob,   belofed   husband   of  Dora  Best,   al 

Denver,  Col.,  and  bod  of  Uarie  Best. 
9aBenl  to-dkj  at  !  p   m.  from  413  a  Paulina  et. ; 

intenneot    at    Graceland.     .Member    cf    Vernon 

CouicU,  S4,.Bo;aJ  League. 
8KE30N — Belored  wife  of  John  BeesoQ,  June  20, 

1802.    and   alster  cf   Frank   B.    Metzingar.    Ura 

A^isflral  (rota  her  late  re^dcnce.  4150  Artesian  ar., 
to  St.  Agnes'  Gtarrcb.  to  Forty-ninth  St.  and  Ash- 
land ar.,  tbeacaTjy  can  to  Mount  Olivet,  to-day. 

»EBNS— Mrs.  Anni  M.j_840  W.  Tajlor  it, 


^.  m.,  to  Forest  Home. 
»»OWN^Jun»  19.  WaUam  Malcolm,  aoD  trf  Bar- 

rlett  M.    Broim.       ' 
Vuneral   from  family .  residence,   6415  XomiKl    ar., 
,^to-day  at  10  a.  m.     Interment  at  Mount  Hope. 
CLARK— John    8.,    June    19,    beloved   brother    of 
':<Bry«n  H.  and  Alice  Clarit  and  Mrs.   L.   0.   Mc- 

Kflima.'Of  Fscanaba.  Mich. 

BO   A    ^acamoit   ft.   te^Sin^tnca'd    Church. 
Xb*n  Ulb  masa  will  be  celebrated,    thence  by 
foniaim  to  Mount  Olivet. 
ODRTIN— Michael,  at  his  brotber'a  residence.  3148 
Cnion  aT.,'iiatica  ct  Canigaholt,   County  Claie, 

tfimnnl  to-day  at  0  a.  m.  from  brother's  residence 
■'Jo  NaUrUy   Church,    thence  by  can  to  Mourn 
OUret,  via  46th  at.  depou 
OARRIB— June    20,    Adam,    belwed  .bosband    of 

Marguerite  Darric  (nee  Granuau). 
runaral  Monday  at  »a5  a._.ln.  Trom  hu  late  rral- 
»-^ncf,  1154  Bourooy  at..  Sj  Prtsentatlon  CUurcii; 
theask  by  carriages  to  Calvary  Cemetery. 

ol  Matilda  Dow  (nee  Hueb- 
120  Darton  Bt.,  to-day, 


•©OSS-sJOhn.  Tioabaod 
•Vtineral  from  late  r«sid 


*•«>»■  of -Jame*  W.   and  Marpiret 
**  _  L»wrenca  »v.,  "»t    New 
*-^-  -        •  2  mtutla. 


Dr.  Sleight's 
Fat  Reducing  Tablets 


No.  1 


is  just  what  you  do  not  want,  and  then  in  the  text  they 
try  to  overcome  this  false  impression,  and  to  show  you 
that  what  they  have  to  offer  is  not  so  bad  after  all.  Most 
of  us  are  unable  to  see  how  the  advertiser  has  gained, 
even  if  he  has  succeeded  in  giving  us  logical  proof  that 
his  goods  are  not  so  bad  as  we  were  at  first  led  to  think. 
We  are  not  logically  inclined,  and  we  take  the  illustra- 
tion and  the  text  and  combine  the  two.  The  best  that 
the  text  can  do  is  to  destroy  the  evil  effect  of  the  illustra- 
tion. Of  course,  when  we  read  in  the  text  that  the 
illustration  does  not  correctly  represent  the  goods,  we 


FUSION 


105 


ought  to  discard  the  illustration  entirely  and  think  only 
of  the  text,  but,  unfortunately,  we  are  not  constructed 
that  way.  The  impression  made  by  the  illustration  and 
that  made  by  the  text  fuse  and  form  a  whole  which  is  the 
result  formed  by  these  two  elements. 

In  No.  2  of  the  reproduced  advertisements  the  adver- 
tiser w^ants  to  bring  out  the  fact  that  his  insect  powder 
will  not  kill  human  individuals,  but  will  kill  insects. 
The  line  of  his  argument  would  seem  to  be  the  exhibition 
of  a  picture  of  the  skull  of  a  person  killed  by  his  insect 
powder.      He  then  confidentially  assures  you  that  his 


Iham- 
-,  ,.  mer  it  to  get  the  lok 

^       V         OownT    Tbea  it  U  not 

The  Swan  Foantaln  Pen  etarts  wrltliig 
jDBtaDt    U    toucbei    paper,   w'"-    - 
,dyev»n  flow  of  ink.    Tbe  feed  ( 
Illy  adjusted  to  meet  the  needt 


No.  3 


powder  is  *'non-poisonous  to  human."  Most  people  who 
notice  the  advertisement  see  the  picture  of  the  skull,  but 
fail  to  see  the  ^'non^poisonous  to  human." 

The  ^^ad-smith^'  of  No.  3  is  trying  to  convince  the  pub- 
lic that  his  fountain  pen  will  not  blot.  He  shows  us  a 
cut  of  his  pen  doing  just  what  he  wants  us  to  believe  it 
will  not-  do.  If  we  could  look  at  the  cut,  then  forget 
it  entirely  and  read  the  text  without  being  biased  by 
the  cut,  this  form  of  argumentation  might  be  successful, 
but  that  is  not  the  way  in  which  we  think. 

Advertisement  No.  4  apparently  illustrates  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  rug  company  as  an  escaped  convict.  The 
text  makes  no  reference  to  this  fact,  but  tries  to  impress 


106       TPIE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

upon  us  the  idea  that  this  is  the  gentleman  with  whom 
we  should  deal. 

Advertisement  No.  5  is  the  advertisement  of  a  sweet- 
smelling  cigar.  The  way  the  designer  of  the  advertise- 
ment goes  about  it  to  convince  us  that  his  cigars  are 


LEFT  BEHIND. 

Onr  plan  of  selling  all  carpets  from 
inanafacturer  to  consamer  leaves  ooa 
competitors  but  of  the  race. 

Ingrains,  Brussels,  Velvets,  Axmln* 
isters,  Moqaettes,  Davonnierres,  ar« 
all  on  the  hsb. 

If  it's  Rngs,  that's  onr  spectaltT;  la 
fact,  we  make  it  a  point  to  fur^b 
homes  complete  with  floor  coverings 
that  are  proper,  and  we  do  not  dupU' 
cate  fine  patterns. 

Carpet  cleaning  and  laying,  feather 
renovating.    Rugs  from  old  carpets. 

PetoskeyRugMfg. 
and  Carpet  Co.  Ltd. 

455  Mitchell  Street,. 


No.  4 


sweet  smelling  is  to  show  us  Uncle  Sam  smoking  a  cigar 
which  evidently  has  a  very  bad  odor.  In  small  type  he. 
asserts  that  his  cigars  are  not  so  bad,  but  I  would  not 
have  read  that  part  of  the  advertisement  unless  I  had 
had  an  abnormal  interest  in  poor  advertisements. 

Advertisement  No.  6  represents  the  ^^restful  racycle," 
and  does  so  by  displaying  a  lady  on  such  a  wheel  being 
chased  by  an  infuriated  bulldog.     One  of  the  most  un- 


FUSION 


107 


pleasant  things  that  can  happen  to  a  bicycle  rider,  and 
one  of  the  things  which  might  deter  some  ladies  from 
buying  a  bicycle,  is  this  fact  that  bicycle  riders  are  liable 
to  be  chased  by  dogs.  The  writer  of  this  advertisement, 
by  means  of  this  illustration,  practically  tells  every  pos- 


•  FOR  UNCLE  SAiyi'8  :BIRTHDAY 
annlTersary  yott  don't  want  a  'stinka- 
dora..  Do  honor  (o  your  country,  in' a' 
d.eJlclouB  and  sweet  smoke  on  July 
4th  by  smoking  one  of  odr  exquisitely! 
flavored  Billy  Walton's  6c  Straight 
iod  Grand  Duchesse  Cigars  They  are 
tiie  t)est  cigars 'to  be  found  In  twwa 
and^  aw  just  what  you  want  for  a 
hT)lIday  treat  for  your  friends.  Try 
thein  by  ftU  means. 

tt'cmdANAV.     WW.  W.  WAITOH. 


RIDE  THE  RESTFUL 


Racycle 

RIGID 

REASONABLE 

RADICALLY  RIOHT 


Reduced  Rates  to  Rest- 
d  e  n  «  Represenlatives. 
Request  Rates  and  Re- 
prints of  Royal  Racycles. 

MIAMI  CYCLE  & 

MFQ. ,  COMPANY 

MIddIetown.O. 


No,  5 


No.  6 


sible  customer  to  hesitate  before  she  buys  this  wheel, 
because,  if  she  buys  it,  she  is  likely  to  be  chased  by  dogs. 
In  advertisement  No.  7  the  author  is  trying  to  bring 
out  the  point  that  insects  do  not  infest  this  particular 
brand  of  rolled  oats.  In  his  illustration  he  shows  great 
crowds  of  insects  swarming  about  it.  If  you  examine 
the  advertisement  you  see  that,  although  the  insects  do 
have  a  particular  liking  for  this  kind  of  oats,  they  cannot 
get  at  them  till  the  can  is  once  opened.  To  my  mind  this 
brand  of  rolled  oats  and  insects  are  so  firmly  united  that 
I  cannot  think  of  the  food  without  thinking  of  the 
insects. 


108       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Ordinarily  the  Quaker  Oats  advertisement  has  been 
identified  by  the  presence  of  the  good  Quaker.  He  looks 
strong,  hardy,  clean,  and  honest.  In  No.  8  we  have  a 
portrait  of  a  man  who  is  disgusting  in  appearance.     He 


THIS  IS  THE  ORIGINAL 

nERA\ETlQ/lLLYSE:flLED 

-PACKAGE  OF  CEREALS 

Sanje^uantity  ^^  cor?tair^e((  it}  usual- 
Size  ty^ojyounci Package 


For  Sale  by  Grocers  Everywhere 

The  careful  preparation  given  the  contents  of  this  package,  justifies 
the  manufacturers  in  claiming  that  it  will  keep  indefinitely  in  good 
condition,  and  upon  serving,  present  a  flavor  and  bouquet,  un- 
equaled  by  any  cereal  ever  offered  to  the  public 

Directions  for  Opening  and  Cooking  on  Edch  Can 

THE  GREAT  WESTERN  CEREAL  COMPANY,  Chicago,  Dls. 


No.  7 

fuses  with  oats,  and  the  product  is  something  which  is 
not  appetizing  and  is  a  food  wiiich  I  do  not  care  to  taste. 
I  have  always  thought  of  Quaker  Oats  as  something  par- 
ticularly clean  and  healthful,  and  my  idea  was  deter- 
mined in  part  by  associating  the  food  with  the  Quaker. 


FUSION  109 

When  this  advertisement  is  before  me,  I  think  that 
Quaker  Oats  are  fit  to  eat  only  on  condition  that  I  ab- 
stract the  thought  of  the  food  from  that  of  this  filthy- 
looking  specimen  of  humanity. 

In  an  advertisement  of  food  products  the  cut  is  com- 


Short-sighted  man — lacks  penetration. 

/  He  b  •  sJioTMfgJited  man  Indeed  who  Cinnot  «ee  the  other  end  of  the  medical  bretklut  food  hMtL 
Apjr  food  that  coddle!  digestion  til  the  time  must  nealcn  digestion  .at  last  by  sheer  lack  of  exerdstkl 

A  strong  digestion  iBight  not  be  greatly  weakened  by  a  diet  of  rich  foods, — but  even  the  strongeit 
digestion  cannot  withstand  the  weakening  effects  of  laboratory  foods.  j 

Only  a  short-sighted  man  will  deny  that  natural  digestion  most  be  relied  on  after  all  for  asslmilatiolk 
ef  the  food  elements  which  the  body  demands, — and  the  better  the  digestion  the  better  the  prospect  ot 
liealth.     The  way  to  preserve  the  strength  of  natural  digestion  it  to  offer  it  only  natural  food. 

The  one  natural  food  that  fills  every  need  of  body  and  nerve  and  brain, — that  pvea  every  foot 
clement  in  exactly  the  proportion*  demanded  by  the  human  system,— i» 

Quaker  OsLts 

No  other  food  has  ever  been  granted  that  ttcad&t  &TOr  b  shicb  Quaker  Oati  it  bcU  it  (  aSBm 
well-served  breakfast  tables. 

Yoo'U  see  the  reasoo,  iinlcsi  yoa  sn 

A. SHORTSIGHTED  MAN. 

No.  8 

parable  to  the  waiter  in  a  restaurant.  We  know  that 
the  waiter  does  not  prepare  the  food,  yet  he  is  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  kitchen,  and  we  will  not  enter  a 
restaurant  if  the  waiter  looks  repulsive.  In  a  similar 
manner  we  know  that  the  cut  in  an  advertisement  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  food  advertised,  but  the  cut  is 


110       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

the  representative  of  the  food,  and  we  do  not  want  the 
food  if  its  representative  looks  repulsive. 

All  the  advertisements  here  reproduced  seem  to  be 
co^nstructed  in  total  disregard  to  the  great  principle  of 
fusion  which  plays  an  important  part  in  all  our  think- 
ing. In  all  these  advertisements  the  cut  and  the  text 
{e.g.y  in  the  first  advertisement  the  deaths  and  funerals 
and  the  tablet  advertisement)  fuse,  and  each  plays  its 
part  in  forming  the  total  impression.  We  are  not  able 
to  think  of  the  text  without  thinking  of  or  being 
influenced  by  the  illustration. 

The  ordinary  man  and  woman  are  not  accustomed  to 
critical  logical  thinking.  They  are  not  accustomed  to 
consider  an  object  or  argument  on  its  own  merits  and 
independent  of  all  other  things.  They  are  more  inclined 
to  take  objects,  arguments,  and  events  in  their  entirety. 
They  fuse  all  the  impressions  of  a  particular  situation 
into  one  total  impression,  and  are  influenced  by  events 
in  their  totality  without  being  able  to  analyze  the  ele- 
ments which  have  united  to  form  the  w^hole.  If  those 
who  construct  and  place  advertisements  would  consider 
this  principle  of  fusion,  they  would  be  more  careful  in 
their  choice  of  mediums,  in  the  association  of  advertise- 
ments, in  the  make-up  and  in  the  construction  of  the 
individual  advertisements. 


MEMORY  111 


MEMOKY 

Impressions  once  received  leave  traces  of  themselves, 
so  that,  ill  imagination,  we  can  live  over  the  same  ex- 
periences and  can  recognize  them  as  related  to  our  past. 
This  knowledge  of  former  impressions,  or  states  of  mind, 
which  have  already  once  dropped  from  consciousness, 
is  what  is  l^nown  as  memory. 

I  can  imagine  how  the  jungles  of  Africa  must  look. 
This  is  an  act  of  productive  imagination.  Yesterday  I 
was  on  the  corner  of  Fifth  avenue  and  Lake  street  in 
Chicago.  I  heard  the  sliouts  of  teamsters,  the  rattle 
of  passing  vehicles,  and  the  roar  of  elevated  trains  ,*^  I 
saw  the  people,  the  wagons,  and  the  cars.  To-day  I 
can,  in  imagination,  live  over  the  same  experience,  and 
as  I  do  so  I  recognize  the  experience  as  belonging  to 
my  past.  I  am  therefore  remembering  my  past  experi- 
ence: 

As  I  try  to  recall  the  street  scene  of  yesterday  I  find 
that  many  of  the  details  have  escaped  me.  I  cannot  re- 
member how  the  teamsters  looked  nor  what  sort  of 
cries  they  were  uttering.  I  remember  that  there  were 
teamsters  and  that  they  w^ere  shouting  at  their  horses, 
but  I  cannot,  in  my  imagination,  see  their  faces  or  hear 
their  voices  as  I  did  yesterday.  In  short,  my  memory 
has  faded,  and  has  faded  rapidly.  It  is  not  likely  that 
any  memory  is  so  vivid  as  the  original  experience, 
neither  does  it  contain  all  the  details  of  the  actual  ex- 
perience.   Immediately  after  crossing  the  street  I  could 


112      THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Lave  described  the  scene  much  better  than  I  could  now. 
A  year  hence  I  shall  probably  have  forgotten  all  about  it. 

Our  memories  gradually  fade  with  time.  Professor 
Ebbinghouse,  of  Germany,  was  the  first  to  try  to  find 
out  exactly  hoAv  fast  our  memories  do  fade.  Since  he 
published  his  thesis  many  others  have  taken  up  the  work, 
and  his  and  their  results  are  fairly  well  established  and 
definite.  They  have  found  that  our  memories  are  at 
their  best  two  seconds  after  the  experience  has  taken 
place.  After  two  seconds  the  memory  fades  very 
rapidly,  so  that  in  twenty  minutes  we  have  forgotten 
more  of  an  experience  than  we  shall  forget  in  the  next 
thirty  days. 

We  forget  very  rapidly  during  the  first  few  seconds, 
minutes  and  hours.  What  we  remember  a  day  is  a  very 
small  part  of  our  experiences,  but  it  is  the  part  which 
persists,  as  the  memory  fades  very  slowly  after  the  first 
day.  What  we  remember  for  twenty  minutes  and  what 
we  can  get  others  to  remember  for  that  time  is  of  great 
concern,  for  it  is  what  we  and  they  remember  for  longer 
times  also. 

What  the  practical  business  man  wants  to  know  about 
memory  can  be  put  in  two  questions. 

First,  how  can  I  improve  my  own  memory? 

Second,  how  can  I  so  present  my  advertisements  that 
they  will  be  remembered  by  the  public? 

It  is  not  possible  for  a  person  with  a  poor  memory 
to  develop  a  good  one,  but  every  one  can  improve  his 
memory  by  the  observance  of  a  few  well-known  and 
thoroughly  established  principles.  The  first  principle 
is  repetition.  If  you  want  to  make  sure  that  you  will 
remember  a  name,  say  it  over  to  yourself.  Repeat  it  in 
all  the  ways  possible — say  it  over  aloud,  write  it,  look 
at  it  after  it  is  written,  think  how  it  sounded  w^hen 


MEMORY  113 

you  heard  the  name,  recall  it  at  frequent  periods  and 
until  it  has  become  thoroughly  fixed  in  your  mind. 

The  second  principle  is  intensity.  If  you  want  to 
remember  a  name,  pay  the  strictest  possible  attention 
to  it.  If  you  apply  the  first  principle  ami  repeat  the 
name,  then  you  should  pay  the  maximum  amount  of  at- 
tention to  every  repetition.  In  this  way  the  process 
of  learning  will  be  so  reduced  that  a  single  repetition 
may  be  enough,  and  still  the  name  may  be  retained,  for 
a  long  period  of  time. 

The  third  principle  is  that  of  association.  The  things 
which  we  think  over,  classify  and  systematize,  and  thus 
get  associated  with  our  previous  experience,  are  the 
things  which  we  commit  most  easily  and  retain  the 
longest. 

As  a  boy  at  school  I  learned  by  repetition  that  Co- 
lumbus discovered  America  in  1492.  At  that  time 
this  was  to  me  an  entirely  disconnected  fact.  It  was  not 
associated  with  anything  else,  and  so  cost  me  great 
effort  of  attention  and  frequent  repetition  before  I  had 
it  thoroughly  memorized.  At  a  later  time  I  was  com- 
pelled to  learn  the  approximate  date  of  the  fall  of  Con- 
stantinople, the  application  of  the  compass  to  naviga- 
tion, the  invention  of  printing,  the  time  of  the  activity 
of  Copernicus,  Michelangelo,  Titian,  Dtirer,  Holbein, 
etc.  Such  a  list  of  unconnected  dates  would  have  cost 
me  much  unprofitable  effort  if  I  had  been  compelled 
to  learn  them  separately.  As  it  was,  I  connected  them 
all  with  the  date  of  the  discovery  of  America,  and  saw 
that  these  men  and  these  events  were  all  contemporane- 
ous and  together  made  what  is  known  as  the  Renais- 
sance. 

The  details  of  a  business  or  professional  life  which 
are  connected  in  a  series  are  not  hard  to  learn,  and 


114       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

are  not  soon  forgotten.  A  man  may  have  no  trouble 
from  forgetting  the  details  of  his  business  or  profession, 
yet  may  have  a  poor  memory  for  all  events  not  thus 
associated. 

The  fourth  principle  is  that  of  ingenuity.  I  remem- 
ber the  name  of  Miss  Low,  for  she  is  a  short  woman. 
I  remember  a  friend's  telephone,  which  is  1391,  by  think- 
ing how  unfortunate  it  is  to  have  such  a  number  to 
remember — 13  is  supposed  to  be  an  unlucky  number, 
and  91  is  seven  times  13. 

This  method  is  applicable  only  to  disconnected  facts 
which  we  find  difflculty  in  remembering  by  the  methods 
given  before.  It  is,  however,  a  method  which  was  used 
by  the  Roman  oratojs  and  has  been  used  more  or  less 
ever  since.  There  is  probably  no  one  who  does  not 
make  frequent  use  of  it  in  attempting  to  remember 
names,  dates,  figures,  and  similar  data. 

We  all  appreciate  the  value  of  a  good  memory,  and 
are  willing  to  pay  any  one  w^ho  will  tell  us  how  to  train 
ours.  This  condition  of  affairs  has  made  "memory 
training"  a  profitable  business  for  the  fakir.  It  is  fairly 
well  established  now  that  one's  native  retentiveness  is 
unchangeable.  One  who  has  an  unretentive  memory 
cannot  possibly  change  it  by  any  method  of  training. 
All  he  can  do  is  to  improve  on  his  method  of  acquiring 
and  recording  knowledge. 

The  third  principle  given  above — ^^association — ^is  the 
one  by  far  of  the  most  importance. 

The  fourth  principle  is  the  one  of  least  general  appli- 
cation; indeed  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  apply  it  too 
frequently,  it  becomes  worse  than  useless,  yet  it  is  the 
principle  used  by  most  persons  who  have  "memory  train 
Ing"  to  sell. 

When  the  question  arises, — how^  to  construct  an  ad- 


MEMORY  115 

vertisement  so  that  the  reader  cannot  forget  it,  we  find 
that  the  question  is  answered  by  the  proper  application 
of  the  principles  enunciated  above.  The  advertisement 
that  is  repeated  over  and  over  again  at  frequent  inter- 
vals gradually  becomes  fixed  in  the  memory  of  the 

Vitalized  Phosphites. 

Brain 

and 

Nenre 

Food, 

Prom  no  pbM* 
pbold  principle  of 
the  Ox  Brain  an^ 
(be  Efflbry*  •! 
Wheat. 

Has  been  used  more  than  thirty  years  by  thousands 
of  active  business  men  and  women,  from  whom 
sustained,  vigorous  application  of  brain  and  nen*- 
ous  power  is  required,  promptly  relieving  the  dc* 
pression  from  overwork,  worry,  nervous  excite- 
inent,  and  sleeplessness,  increasing  activity  and 
vital  force  by  feeding  the  brain  and  nerves  with 
the  exact  food  they  require  for  their  nutrition  and 
normal  action. 

May  we  send  you  a  descriptive  pamphlet  J 


Bl&!f& 


Pkbparkd  by 

S6  West  35tb  streets 
New  York  atr» 


If  not  found  at  DrvogMX  aent  by  maa  {$lMfi- 
CROSBY'S  COLD  AND  CATARRH  CURB. 
Tb«  best  ^emedr  In  existence  for  cold  In  the  head  and  i 
By  mall,  60  cents. 


Xo.  1. — This  advertisement  is  engraved 
on  the  memory  by  the  expensive 
process  of  mere  repetition. 

reader.     It  may  be  a  crude  and  an  expensive  method, 
but  it  seems  to  be  effective. 

This  method  gailis  added  effect  by  repeating  one  or 
more  characteristic  features,  and  by  changing  some  of 
the  features  at  each  appearance  of  the  advertisement. 
Thus  the  reproduced  advertisement  of  Vitalized  Phos- 
phites (No.  1)  is  frequently  repeated  in  identical  form. 
We  cannot  forget  this  advertisement,  but  it  has  taken 
too  many  repetitions  to  secure  the  desired  results. 


116       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

The  reproduced  advertisement  of  Cream  of  Wheat 
(No.  2)  is  but  one  of  a  series  of  advertisements  in  all 
of  which  the  colored  chef  appears  prominently.  This 
characteristic  feature  causes  us  to  associate  all  of  the 
series,  and  hence  the  effect  of  repetition  is  secured.    At 


No.   2. — This   series  of  advertisements  represents 
the  central  feature,  but  always  in  a  new  form. 

the  same  time,  there  is  sufficient  diversity,  because  the 
colored  chef  is  never  represented  in  the  same  way  in 
any  two  of  the  advertisements  as  they  appear  from 
month  to  month.  Similar  statements  could  be  made  of 
a  host  of  other  excellent  advertisements. 

The  advertisement  which  makes  an  intensive  impres- 
sion is  one  which  the  advertiser  does  not  easily  forget. 


MEMORY  117 

The  methods  for  securing  this  intensity  are  many,  but  a 
few  examples  will  serve  to  make  the  method  plain. 

Bright  colors  impress  us  more  than  dull  ones.  The 
bright-colored  inserts  and  advertisements  run  in  colors 
are  remembered  better  than  others,  because  they  make 
a  greater  impression  on  us. 

In  any  experience  it  is  the  first  and  the  last  parts 
of  it  that  impress  us  most  and  that  get  fixed  most  firmly 
in  our  memories.  The  first  and  the  last  advertisements 
in  a  magazine  are  the  most  effective.  Likewise  the  first 
and  the  last  parts  of  any  particular  advertisement  (un- 
less very  short)  are  the  parts  that  we  remember  best. 

The  back  cover-page  is  valuable  because  when  the 
magazine  is  lying  on  a  table  the  back  cover-page  is  likely 
to  be  turned  up,  but  in  addition  to  that  it  is  a  valuable 
page  because  it  is  likely  to  be  the  first  or  the  last  seen 
by  most  readers. 

The  second  cover-page  is  valuable  because  it  is  so 
likely  to  be  seen  first,  and  even  to  be  seen  by  those  who 
do  not  look  at  the  advertisements  in  the  back  of  the 
magazine — if  such  persons  still  exist! 

The  intensity  of  the  impression  which  an  advertise- 
ment makes  is  dependent  upon  the  response  which  it 
secures  from  the  readers.  The  pedagogue  would  call 
this  action  the  "motor  response,"  even  though  it  were 
nothing  more  than  the  writing  of  a  postal  card.  Such 
action  is  vital  in  assisting  the  memory  of  the  readers. 

An  advertisement  which  secures  a  response  sufficient 
to  lead  to  the  writing  of  a  postal  card  has  a  chance  of 
being  remembered  which  is  incomparably  greater  than 
that  of  other  advertisements.  The  advertisement  of 
Pompeian  Massage  Cream  (No.  3)  will  not  soon  be  for- 
gotten by  those  who  are  induced  to  send  the  name  of 
their  dealer  to  the  Pompeian  Manufacturing  Company. 


118       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 


Rhymes  and  alliterations  are  rhetorical  forms  which 
seem  to  be  of  great  assistance  when  we  attempt  to  com- 
mit verses,  and  even  when  we  do  not  want  to  remember 
them  the  rhythm  may  make  such  an  impression  that  we 
can't  forget  them.     The  "Spotless  Town''  is  an  illus- 


No.  3. — Those  who  answer  this  adver- 
tisement will  not  easily  forget  it. 

tration  of  a  successful  application  of  this  psychological 
fact. 

There  is.  much  poor  advertising  being  done  at  the 
present  time  in  a  futile  attempt  to  produce  a  successful 
imitation  of  the  "Spotless  Town."  The  rhythm  and  the' 
alliteration  must  be  excellent,  else  they  make  the  whole 
attempt  seem  ridiculous,  and  the  advertisement  falls 
flat. 

Anything  humorous  or  ridiculous — even  a  pun — is 
hard  to  forget.  But  unless  the  attempt  is  successful, 
the  result  is  ludicrous  and  futile.     Furthermore,  that 


MEMORY 


119 


which  impresses  one  person  as  funny  may  seem  silly 
to  another.  The  reproduced  advertisement  of  Gold  Dust 
(ISO.  4)  seems  funny  to  some,  but  does  not  to  others. 
The  reproduced  advertisement  of  Rough  on  Rats  (No. 
5)  impresses  some  persons  as  silly,  while  others  think 
it  funny. 

Advertising  is  a  serious  business,  and  unless  the  ad- 
vertisement i-s  extremely  clever,  it  is  unwise  to  attempt 


Gold  Dust  Stands  Alone 

In  the  washing  powder  Held— It  has  no  substitute.    Yb« 
must  either  use 

GOLD  DUST 

<M  something  Inierlor — ^there  is  no  middle  ground. 
Buy  GOLD  DUST  sod  jrou  buy  th«  best 

UUSpOR  I    'vork.    oil  ckxh.   dlY.mr.   u>l    ifrmra.   pollAlnt    brus   woii 


COMPANY.  CMcar>-Mabn  of  FAIRY  SOAT. 

GOLD  DUST  makes  bard  water  soft 


No.  4. — Those  who  laugh   at  this  ad- 
vertisement will  remember  it.  ^ 

to  present  the  humorous  side  of  life,  although  it  is  highly 
valuable  when  well  done. 

Anything  will  be  remembered  which  awakens  our  emo- 
tions, whether  the  thing  be  ugly  or  beautiful,  whether 
it  causes  us  to  smile  or  to  sympathize  with  the  sorrows 
of  others.  That  which  excites  an  emotion  is  not  easily 
forgotten,  and  hence  is  a  good  form  of  advertising,  if 
it  can  convince  the  reason  at  the  same  time  that  it 
stimulates  the  feelings.  The  advertisement  of  Gold  Dust 
(No.  4)  pleases  me  and  convinces  me  that  the  product 
is  good.    The  advertisement  of  Rough  on  Rats  (No.  5) 


120       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

amuses  me  because  it  is  so  excessively  silly.  It  does  not 
please  me,  does  not  convince  me  of  the  desirability  of 
the  goods.  I  find  that  both  advertisements  have  made 
such"  an  intense  impression  on  me  that  they  have  stuck 
in  my  memory,  and  I  see  no  prospect  of  being  able  to 
forget  them  soon. 

The  writer  of  advertisements  must  consider  the  prin- 
ciple of  association,  and  ordinarily  does  so,  even  if  he 
does  it  unconsciously.  He  should  present  his  argument 
in  such  a  form  that  it  will  naturally  and  easily  be  asso- 


^ 

li^^§B^^^^^^^^^9^^'«            tvr-^ 

\ 

'^R^^^.> 

C; 

h 

mffliliWMrr.i'l 

.  rir'n  5tO(  '"VV."',"    ''.''""'Vr. 

^ 

--  -r-  ^^•T-r..-^'.-vT'   ^^- .-'■    -, - --^ 

No.  5. — An  evident  attempt  to  be  humorous. 


elated  by  the  reader  with  his  own  former  experience. 
This  is  best  done  by  appealing  to  those  interests  and 
motives  which  are  the  ruling  principles  of  the  reader's 
thinking.  Personally,  I  should  forget  a  recipe  for  a 
cake  before  I  had  finished  reading  it,  but  to  a  cook  it  is 
full  of  interest,  and  does  not  stand  out  as  an  isolated 
fact,  but  as  a  modification  or  addition  of  something 
already  in  his  mind.  The  statement  that  the  bond  bears 
four  per  cent,  interest  is  not  forgotten  by  the  capitalist ; 
for  he  immediately  associates  the  bond  of  which  this 
statement  is  made  with  the  group  of  similar  bonds,  and 
so  the  statement  is  remembered,  not  as  an  isolated  fact. 


MEMORY 


121 


but  in  connection  with  a  Avliole  series  of  facts  which  are 
constantly  before  his  mind. 

The  arguments  of  an  advertisement  should  be  such 
as  are  easily  associated  with  the  personal  interests  and 
with  the  former  experience  of  the  majority  of  the 
readers. 

The  reproduced  advertisement  of  the  Buster  Brown 


ThtUt  IS  Money  IK   ^TocwtleiJ  —     ^  ^ 

5\^BU5TER  BROWJI 


5% 


O/.GOLD 
BOND5 


itHtBUrrrKBRoNVKjTocKiMcij'roR  Bd^cr  ari  tut  BtjT  25*JTock. 

A  5%1NTE1?EJ'T  CoOtoH  LIKt  THUf 

TKIJ  CoOpONvJ-HoOjLD  BE  J-AVEP 

lACT  coOpon  lerpRrJTxrr^  yoOk  iwE^TKtVr  or  25«  vXt/^  yoOhavb 

J20«  WORTH  OS  COOPOKJ  THETABE  REDtEMABUl  BVTOE  HfJ<OTACrOgIltr 
K5%■^ilV],^HlS  U  ir,MORt.THAKAWV  NV/K  PAY>r*Yot}KMTHECl«(» 
THt  PRIJ^CIPM.. 


Here  Is  the  opportunity  to  give 
your  boy  a  lesson  In  the  value  of 
money  and  the  growth  of  interest 


Buster  Brawa'it 


t  tiockinn  forilrli  liav* 


Boster  Brown  Stocking  Co. 
346  Broadway,  Mew  Tork 

Notice  SS,''.C»"';i'.5'^^4"""''.»'.l!i 


No.  6. — The  wrong  associations  suggested. 


Stocking  Co.  (ISo.  6)  is  in  direct  violation  of  this  prin- 
ciple. The  advertisement  was  evidently  written  by  a 
man,  and  appeals  to  men  as  being  a  good  advertisement. 
It  would  be  remembered  by  men,  and  if  they  were  the 
purchasers  of  boys'  stockings,  it  would  be  an  excellent 
advertisement.  In  reality  the  men  do  not  buy  the  stock- 
ings, and  so  the  advertisement  appeals  to  those  who  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  business — except  those  who  pay 
for  the  advertisement. 


122       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

The  following  expressions  appeal  powerfully  to  a 
manufacturer,  but  not  to  a  mother : 

^^Five  per  cent,  gold  bonds/'  ^'Clip  your  coupons  and 
make  money,"  '^Give  your  boy  a  lesson  in  the  value  of 
money  and  the  groAvth  of  interest,"  "This  is  one  per  cent, 
more  than  any  bank  pays,  and  allows  you  the  use  of  the 
principal,  allowing  you  a  share  of  our  profits,"  etc. 

The  principle  of  ingenuity  can  liave  but  an  occasional 
application,  but  there  are  instances  when  it  has  been 
employed  with  great  effectiveness.  Thus  "Uneeda"  is 
a  name  which  cannot  be  forgotten.  It  pleases  by  its  very 
ingenuity,  although  most  of  the  attempts  in  this  direc- 
tion have  been  futile.  Thus  "Uwanta"  is  recognized 
as  an  imitation,  and  is  neither  impressive  nor  pleasing. 
"Keen  Kutter"  is  a  name  for  tools  which  is  not  easily 
forgotten.  "Syrup  of  Figs"  is  a  name  for  a  patent  medi- 
cine which  is  easily  remembered,  although  the  product 
contains  no  figs. 

A  tailor  in  Chicago  advertised  himself  and  his  shop 
in  such  an  ingenious  way  that  no  one  could  read  his 
advertisement  and  forget  the  essential  features  of  it. 
His  street  number  was  33,  his  telephone  number  was  the 
same.  There  were  33  letters  in  his  name  and  address. 
He  sold  a  business  suit  for  |33.  The  number  33  stood  out 
prominently  as  the  striking  feature  of  his  advertisement 
and  impressed  many  as  being  unique,  and  at  the  same 
time  fixed  in  their  minds  his  name  and  address,  and  the 
cost  of  his  suits. 

The  four  principles  enunciated  above  for  impressing 
advertisements  on  the  minds  of  possible  customers  are 
capable  of  unlimited  application,  and  will  not  disappoint 
any;  for  they  are  the  laws  which  have  been  found  to 
govern  the  minds  of  all  persons  as  far  as  their  memories 
are  concerned. 


THE  FEELINGS  AND  THE  EMOTIONS     123 


XI 
THE  FEELINGS  AND  THE  EMOTIONS 

We  all  know  what  is  meant  by  pleasure  and  pain,  by 
joy  and  grief.  These  feelings  and  emotions  are  not 
better  understood  after  we  have  attempted  to  define 
them.  They  are  known  only  by  experience,  and  we  are 
all  familiar  with  them.  In  the  present  chapter  we  are 
interested  in  the  effect  which  pleasure  and  pain  and 
the  different  emotions  have  upon  the  mind  and  the  body 
of  the  person  experiencing  them.  These  effects  are  not 
sufficiently  recognized  and  yet  they  are  of  special  sig- 
nificance to  the  advertiser. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  we  shall  use  the  word  "pleas- 
ure" not  merely  to  express  such  simple  pleasures  as 
tasting  an  appetizing  morsel,  but  also  to  express  such 
pleasurable  emotions  as  joy,  love,  benevolence,  gratitude, 
pride,  etc.  The  word  "pain''  or  "displeasure"  will  like- 
wise be  used  to  express  simple  painful  sensations  and 
also  emotions  which  involve  pain,  such  as  fear,  hate, 
jealousy,  antipathy,  etc. 

Every  pleasurable  and  every  painful  experience  has 
a  direct  reflex  effect  on  the  bodily  functions  and  also  on 
the  action  of  the  mind.  These  effects  are  widespread 
and  important.  Some  of  these  changes,  even  though 
significant,  are  not  directly  detected  without  the  use  of 
delicate  recording  instruments.  Pleasures  actually 
cause  the  limbs  to  increase  in  size,  and,  accompanying 
the  physical  change,  is  a  feeling  of  expansiveness  which 


124       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

serves  to  heighten  the  pleasure.  With  pain  the  limbs 
shrivel  in  size,  and  this  is  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of 
depression. 

Under  the  influence  of  pleasure  the  efficiency  of  the 
heart-action  is  greatly  enhanced.  This  increase  of  blood 
supply  gives  us  a  feeling  of  buoyancy  and  increased 
vitality,  which  greatly  enhances  the  already  pleasing 
experience.  Displeasure,  on  the  other  hand,  interferes 
with  the  normal  action  of  the  heart.  This  gives  us  a 
feeling  of  sluggishness  and  depression. 

Pleasure  assists  the  rhythmical  action  of  the  lungs  and 
adds  to  the  depth  of  breathing.  These  changes  serve  but 
to  add  to  the  already  pleasing  experience.  Pain  inter- 
feres with  the  rhythm  of  breathing,  makes  the  lung 
action  less  deep,  and  gives  a  feeling  of  being  stifled, 
hindered,  and  checked  in  carrying  out  our  purposes. 

Pleasing  experiences,  increase  our  muscular  strength 
and  cause  us  to  feel  like  men.  We  feel  more  like  under- 
taking great  tasks  and  have  more  faith  in  our  ability 
to  accomplish  them.  Pain  decreases  muscular  strength 
and  gives  us  a  feeling  of  weakness  and  lack  of  confidence. 
Pleasures  not  only  give  greater  strength  to  the  voluntary 
muscles,  but  they  affect  directly  the  action  of  all  the 
voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles  of  the  body.  In 
pleasure  the  hands  go  out  from  the  body,  the  shoulders 
are  thrown  back  and  the  head  elevated.  We  open  up  and 
become  subject  to  the  influences  in  our  environment. 
Being  pleased  with  what  we  are  receiving,  we  become 
receptive  and  expand  that  we  may  take  in  more  of  the 
same  sort.  In  pain  the  hands  are  drawn  in  towards  the 
chest  and  the  whole  body  draws  in  within  itself  as  if  to 
protect  itself  against  outside  influences.  These  actions 
of  the  body  are  reflected  in  the  mental  attitude.  In 
pleasure  our  minds  expand.     We  become  extremely  sug- 


THE  FEELINGS  AND  THE  EMOTIONS     125 

gestible,  and  are  likely  to  see  everything  in  a  favorable 
light.  We  are  prompt  to  act  and  confident  of  success. 
In  pain  we  are  displeased  with  the  present  experiences 
and  so  withdraw  within  ourselves  to  keep  from  being 
acted  upon.  We  refuse  to  receive  suggestions,  are  not 
easily  influenced,  and  are  in  a  suspicious  attitude  toward 
everything  which  is  proposed.  When  in  pain  we  ques- 
tion the  motives  of  even  our  friends  and  only  suspicious 
thoughts  are  called  up  in  our  minds. 

These  brief  statements  of  facts  serve  to  call  to  the 
reader's  attention  the  mental  attitude  in  which  the 
person  is  placed  by  the  influence  of  pleasure  and  pain. 
Keen  observers  of  men  have  not  been  slow  in  profiting 
by  these  facts.  In  ^Tickwick  Papers,"  speaking  from 
the  viewpoint  of  the  defendant,  Dickens  says :  "A  good, 
contented,  well-breakfasted  juryman  is  a  capital  thing 
to  get  hold  of.  Discontented  or  hungry  jurymen  always 
find  for  the  plaintiff."  Here  Dickens  expresses  the  fact 
that  man  is  not  pre-eminently  logical,  but  that  his  think- 
ing is  influenced  by  his  present  state  of  feelings.  If  the 
juryman  were  discontented  and  hungry,  he  would  be 
feeling  pessimistic  and  suspicious  and  would  believe 
in  the  guilt  of  the  defendant. 

The  modern  business  man  does  his  utmost  to  minister 
to  the  pleasure  of  the  customers  in  his  store.  He  knows 
they  will  place  a  larger  order  if  they  are  feeling  happy 
than  if  they  are  feeling  otherwise.  The  American  slang 
expression,  "jolly  up,"  means  the  pleasing  by  flattery 
of  the  one  from  whom  it  is  desired  to  obtain  a  favor. 
The  merchant  attempts  to  please  the  customer  by  the 
appearance  of  the  store,  by  courteous  treatment,  and  by 
every  other  possible  method.  The  same  pains  must  be 
taken  by  the  advertiser  in  his  attempts  to  please  those 
to  whom  his  appeals  are  made.     The  methods  open  to  the 


126       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

advertiser  are  relatively  few  and  hence  all  available 
means  should  be  employed  most  assiduously. 

In  the  present  chapter  the  importance  of  pleasing  the 
advertiser  by  appealing  to  his  esthetic  sense  will  be  em- 
phasized, and  suggestions  will  be  given  of  concrete 
methods  which  are  available  to  the  advertiser  in  appeal- 
ing to  the  sense  of  the  beautiful. 

To  be  beautiful  a  thing  must  possess  certain  charac- 
teristics which  awaken  a  feeling  of  appreciation  in.  the 
normal  person.  It  is  true  that  the  artistic  judgment  is 
not  possessed  equally  by  all,  or  at  least  it  is  not  equally 
developed  in  all.  There  are,  however,  certain  combina- 
tions of  sounds  which  are  universally  called  harmonies 
and  others  which  are  called  discords.  There  are  certain 
combinations  of  colors  which  are  regarded  as  pleasing 
and  others  which  are  displeasing.  There  are  likewise 
certain  geometrical  forms  or  space  arrangements  which 
are  beautiful,  and  others  which  are  displeasing.  The 
musician  knows  what  tones  will  harmonize  and  which 
ones  will  not.  The  man  without  a  musical  education 
does  not  possess  such  knowledge,  but  he  appreciates  the 
harmony  of  tones  when  he  hears  it.  The  colorist  knows 
how  to  produce  pleasing  effects  with  colors.  He  has  ac- 
quired this  knowledge  which  others  do  not  possess, 
although  they  are  able  to  appreciate  his  work.  The 
artist  knows  how  to  produce  pleasing  effects  with  sym- 
metry and  proportion  of  space  forms.  The  uninitiated 
does  not  possess  such  knowledge  or  ability,  although  he 
is  able  to  appreciate  the  work  of  the  artist  and  can  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  work  of  the  novice. 

Perhaps  the  simplest  thing  that  could  be  suggested 
which  would  have  an  element  of  esthetic  feeling  con- 
nected with  it  is  the  bisection  of  a  straight  line.  It 
seems  almost  absurd  to  suppose  that  the  position  of  the 


THE  FEELINGS  AND  THE  EMOTIONS      127 

point  of  division  in  a  straight  line  would  have  anything 
to  do  with  a  feeling  of  pleasure.  Such,  however,  is 
certainly  the  case,  but,  as  might  be  expected,  the  esthetic 
feeling  is  not  very  pronounced.  As  an  illustration,  look 
at  No.  1.  Here  we  have  a  series  of  straight  vertical 
lines  divided  by  short  cross  lines.  Look  at  the  lines 
carefully  and  you  will  probably  feel  that  the  lines  A,  B, 
and  C  are  divided  in  a  more  pleasing  manner  than  F, 
G,  and  H.  In  other  words,  if  a  straight  vertical  line 
is  to  be  divided  into  two  unequal  parts,  you  prefer  to 


BCD 


H 


No.  1. — A  series  of  bisected  lines.     Which  bisection 
is  the  most  pleasing? 


have  the  division  come  above  the  middle.     This  is  not 
an  altogether  unimportant  discovery. 

In  judging  of  vertical  distances,  we  overestimate  the 
upper  half.  For  this  reason  the  line  E,  which  is  divided 
into  two  equal  parts,  appears  to  be  divided  into  two 
slightly  unequal  parts  and  the  lower  section  seems  to  be 
the  smaller.  The  line  D  is  divided  at  a  point  slightly 
above  the  middle,  but  it  appears  to  be  divided  into  two 


128       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    ADVERTISING 

exactly  equal  parts.  Many  persons  would  say  that  the 
line  D  is  more  pleasing  than  E,  for'  D  appears  to  be 
divided  into  two  equal  parts,  while  E  appears  as  if  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  had  been  made  to  divide  the  line 
into  two  equal  parts. 

Line  D  seems  to  be  perfectly  symmetrical — its  two 
parts  appear  equal.  The  symmetry  about  this  division 
pleases  us,  and  most  persons  would  say  that  this  line, 
which  is  divided  symmetrically,  is  more  pleasing  than  A 
or  H,  which  are  not  divided  symmetrically. 

The  two  parts  of  the  lines  A,  B,  C,  and  H  appear  too 
unequal  and  the  two  parts  of  line  E  appear  too  nearly 
equal.  Lines  C  and  F  are  very  pleasing.  They  have 
divisions  which  do  not  seem  to  be  too  much  alike,  so  the 
divisions  give  diversity.  The  parts  are  not  so  different 
that  they  destroy  the  feeling  of  unity  in  the  line.  A  line 
is  pleasing  if  its  two  parts  are  not  too  much  alike  and 
not  too  different.  The  ratio  of  the  smaller  section  of 
the  line  to  the  larger  section  in  C  and  F  is  approximately 
that  of  3  to  5.  That  is  to  say,  if  a  vertical  line  is  eight 
inches  long,  the  result  is  pleasing  if  the  line  is  divided 
into  two  sections  which  are  respectively  3  and  5  inches 
long.  Exact  experimentation  and  measurements  of  ar- 
tistic productions  show  that  there  is  a  remarkable  pref- 
erence for  this  ratio,  which  is  known  as  the  "golden 
section.''  The  exact  ratio  is  that  of  1  to  1.618,  which  is 
approximately  that  of  3  to  5.  A  line  is  divided  most 
artistically,  if  the  lower  section  is  1.618  times  as  great  as 
the  upper.  Although  this  fraction  seems  very  formi- 
dable, it  is  the  arithmetical  expression  of  a  simple  pro- 
portion which  is  this :  the  short  section  is  to  the  longer 
section  as  the  longer  section  is  to  the  sum  of  both  sec- 
tions. Any  division  of  a  line  which  approximates  this 
golden  section  is  pleasing,  but  a  division  which  approxi- 


THE  FEELINGS  AND  THE  EMOTIONS      129 

mates  the  symmetrical  division  (and  is  not  quite  sym- 
metrical) is  displeasing. 

If  you  hold  No.  1  sideways,  the  lines  will  all  be  changed 
from  vertical  to  horizontal.  The  divisions  will  now 
assume  a  new  relation.  The  divisions  of  lines  A,  B,  and 
C  cease  to  be  more  pleasing  than  those  of  F,  G,  and  H. 
E  now  seems  to  be  divided  symmetrically  and  is  more 
pleasing  than  D.  In  fact,  for  most  persons  the  sym- 
metrical divisions  of  E  seem  to  be  more  pleasing  than 
those  of  even  C  and  F,  which  are  divided  according  to 
the  ratio  of  the  "golden  section."  The  most  pleasing 
division  of  a  horizontal  line  is  that  of  perfect  symmetry 
and  the  next  most  pleasing  is  that  of  the  "golden 
section." 

In  these  divisions  of  straight  lines  into  two  equal 
parts  unity  is  secured ;  in  the  divisions  according  to  the 
ratio  of  the  golden  section  diversity  is  secured,  and  the 
unity  is  not  entirely  lost.  Unity  and  diversity  are  es- 
sential elements  in  all  esthetic  pleasures.  In  vertical 
lines  we  seem  to  prefer  the  emphasis  on  the  diversity, 
while  in  horizontal  lines  the  exact  symmetry,  or  unity, 
is  most  pleasing. 

The  discovery  of  the  most  pleasing  proportion  between 
the  parts  of  straight  lines  w^ould  be  of  decidedly  more 
importance  if  we  should  find  that  the  same  ratio  holds 
for  the  parts  of  more  complicated  figures.  Is  a  rectangle 
more  pleasing  than  a  square?  (For  the  sake  of  brevity 
of  expression  we  disregard  the  fact  that  a  square  is  a  par- 
ticular form  of  a  rectangle.)  Men  have  been  called  on 
to  decide  this  question  times  without  number.  By  in- 
vestigating a  very  large  number  of  sucli  decisions  we 
may  be  able  to  discover  something  of  value.  The  archi- 
tect is  called  upon  to  decide  this  question  every  time  he 
constructs  a  building  in  which  the  artistic  effect  plays 


130       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISmG 

any  part — and  it  always  should.  Think  of  the  temples, 
palaces,  cathedrals,  cottages,  museums,  and  all  other 
structures  in  which  the  artistic  element  plays  a  large 
part.  In  a  great  proportion  of  these  the  height  is  not 
equal  to  the  width.  The  individual  rooms  not  infre- 
quently bear  the  same  ratios  as  the  height  and  width 
of  the  entire  building.  Careful  measurement  of  such 
structures  has  revealed  a  striking  tendency  to  approxi- 
mate what  we  have  learned  as  the  ^'golden  section."  In 
fact,  it  was  originally  called  the  "golden  section  of  archi- 
tecture'/' because  it  was  discovered  so  uniformly  in  archi- 
tecture. 

Think  of  the  shape  of  the  flags  of  all  nations,  of  all 


No.  2. — A  square  and  a  rectangle.     Which  is  the  more  beautiful  ? 

the  picture  frames  which  you  have  ever  seen,  of  win- 
dow panes,  mirrors,  playing  cards,  sheets  of  paper,  en- 
velopes, books,  periodicals,  and  all  other  objects  in 
which  the  shape  is  determined  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
by  artistic  demands.  In  most  of  these  objects  we  find  a 
very  decided  tendency  to  make  the  height  equal  the 
width,  or  else  the  height  is  to  the  width  approximately 
as  3  is  to  5. 

Look  at  the  square  and  the  rectangle  in  No.  2.  The 
height  of  the  rectangle  is  to  its  base  as  3  to  5.  Most 
persons  say  that  the  rectangle  is  the  more  pleasing ;  some 
have  a  preference  for  the  square.     In  the  square  we  have 


THE  FEELINGS  AND  THE  EMOTIONS     131 

a  very  decidecj  symmetry.  Each  line  is  equal  to  every 
other  line.  A  straight  line  drawn  through  the  center  of 
the  figure  from  any  angle  divides  the  figure  into  two 
equivalent  parts.  In  the  rectangle  the  height  is  not 
equal  to  the  length,  but  a  line  drawn  through  the  center 
of  the  figure  divides  it  into  two  equivalent  parts.  The 
square  seems  to  possess  much  symmetry  but  little  diver- 
sity.    The  rectangle  possesses  both  unity  and  diversity. 

A  very  careful  investigator  of  the  esthetic  value  of 
the  different  space  forms  gives  some  interesting  results 
as  the  fruits  of  his  labors.  Thus,  a  rectangle  whose  base 
is  three  per  cent,  greater  than  the  height  is  more  pleas- 
ing than  the  perfect  square.  This  is  accounted  for  be- 
cause we  overestimate  the  height  of  a  square  about  three 
per  cent.  Thus  the  rectangle  whose  base  is  three  per 
cent,  greater  than  its  height  appears  to  be  a  perfect 
square  and  so  is  more  pleasing  than  the  perfect  square. 
If  the  height  of  a  rectangle  is  approximately  eighteen 
per  cent,  greater  or  less  than  its  base,  the  figure  is  dis- 
pleasing because  it  looks  like  an  imperfect  square.  If 
the  difference  in  the  two.  dimensions  of  the  rectangle 
becomes  as  great  as  forty  per  cent.,  the  effect  is  pleasing 
because  the  difference  is  great  enough  to  make  it  evident 
that  the  figure  was  not  meant  for  a  square.  If  one 
dimension  of  the  rectangle  exceeds  the  other  approxi- 
mately sixty  per  cent.,  we  have  the  ratio  of  the  "golden 
section,"  and  the  result  is  more  pleasing  than  it  is  for 
any  other  ratio  of  base  to  height.  If  one  dimension  of 
a  rectangle  exceeds  the  other  by  more  than  two  hundred 
and  fifty  per  cent.,  the  result  is  not  satisfactory.  The 
difference  between  the  two  dimensions  seems  to  become 
too  great  and  the  unity  of  the  figure  is  weakened. 

When  we  consider  that  the  ratio  of  one  dimension  to 
the  other  is  but  a  minor  element  in  the  total  esthetic 


132     THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADVERTISING 

effect,  we  are  not  surprised  that  we  find  exceptions  to 
the  conclusions  reached  in  the  foregoing,  but  the  surpris- 
ing thing  is  the  lack  of  more  exceptions.  Buildings  that 
exceed  in  height  the  ratio  as  given  here  do  not  look 
beautiful,  and  if  the  disproportion  becomes  great  because 
of  the  excessive  height,  we  call  the  buildings  skyscrapers 
and  regard  them  as  eyesores  to  the  American  cities.  A 
building  whose  width  is  many  times  its  height  is  usually 
ugly  and  is  designated  as  a  shed. 

That  which  has  been  said  of  the  square  and  the  rec- 
tangle holds  equally  true  for  the  circle  and  the  ellipse. 
A  circle  is  a  pleasing  form  which  pleases  because  of  its 
symmetry  and  regularity.  An  ellipse  that  is  too  much 
like  a  circle  is  much  less  pleasing  than  an  ellipse  in 
which  the  smaller  diameter  is  to  the  greater  one  as  3 
is  to  5.     The  same  holds  true  of  a  triangle  also. 

The  space  used  by  an  advertiser  is  usually  a  rectangle. 
In  choosing  this  space,  does  the  advertiser  take  into 
consideration  the  relation  of  the  height  and  width  which 
will  produce  the  most  pleasing  effect?  He  certainly 
does  and  the  space  he  chooses  meets  the  conditions  of 
esthetic  pleasure  as  given  above,  although  he  may  be 
entirely  unconscious  of  any  such  intention.  Thus  in  an 
ordinary  niagazine  the  full  page  and  the  ordinary  quar- 
ter-page (the  upper  right,  upper  left,  lower  right,  and 
lower  left)  approximate  most  nearly  the  "golden  sec- 
tion." 

Next  in  .the  approximation  to  the  standard  is  the 
division  into  upper  and  lower  halves;  next  comes  the 
horizontal  quarter,  and  last  the  division  into  right  and 
left  halves.  This  order  of  esthetic  effect  is  also  the  order 
of  frequency  of  choice  of  space.  The  fact  that  a  right 
or  left  half-page  may  be  next  to  reading  matter  makes 
this  division  more  popular  than  it  otherwise  would  be. 


THE  FEELINGS  AND  THE  EMOTIONS      133 

Turn  over  the  pages  of  advertisements  in  any  magazine 
and  look  at  the  different  spaces  to  see  which  class  of 
spaces  pleases  you  most  and  which  least,  and  you  will 
probably  choose  the  spaces  in  the  order  as  indicated 
above.  ( No  mention  has  been  made  of  small  advertise- 
ments, but  what  has  been  said  of  the  larger  spaces  holds 
true  of  the  smaller  also.) 

Some  advertisers  have  used  narrow  spaces  which  ex- 
tend entirely  across  the  page.  The  effect  has  not  been 
pleasing,  although  such  shapes  might  be  striking,  be- 
cause of  their  oddity.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  pub- 
lisher will  allow  the  pages  of  his  magazine  to  be  chopped 
up  into  vertical  quarters,  for  the  effect  would  be  most 
inartistic. 

The  artistic  subdivisions  of  spaces  follow  the  laws  of 
symmetry  and  proportion  as  given  above.  Almost  every 
artistic  production  can  be  sub-divided  into  two  equiv- 
alent parts  by  drawing  a  vertical  line  through  the  middle 
of  it.  Such  symmetry  as  this  is  called  bilateral  sym- 
metry. As  a  typical  example  of  bilateral  symmetry  as 
well  as  pleasing  proportion  in  an  advertisement  we  re- 
produce herewith  the  advertisement  of  the  Butler  Paper 
Company  (No.  3).  The  line  drawn  vertically  through 
this  advertisement  divides  it  into  two  symmetrical  parts. 
Every  subdivision  of  the  display  and  of  the  text  is 
centered.  The  horizontal  divisions  are  strictly  bilateral 
symmetry.  Dotted  lines  are  drawn  to  indicate  the  verti- 
cal divisions.  In  this  we  see  that  the  subdivisions  are 
not  equal,  but  increase  from  the  bottom  upward  in  a 
pleasing  proportion.  A  marked  display  is  found  in  the 
words  "Snow  Flake,''  which  serve*^to  divide  the  text 
into  two  unequal  divisions  which  are  related  to  each 
other  in  a  pleasing  proportion.  Such  an  arrangement 
of  the  vertical  subdivisions  is  certainly  more  pleasing 


134       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 


than  equal  subdivisions  would  be.  By  such  subdivisions 
as  we  have  here  the  unity  of  the  page  is  not  destroyed, 
and  diversity  is  secured. 

It  should  be  observed  that  this  advertisement  of  the 
Butler    Paper    Company    has    employed    an    unusually 


No.  3. — An  example  of  bilateral  symmetry. 

large  number  of  figures  w^hich  are  symmetrical  and  many 
more  which  are  arranged  on  the  ratio  of  the  "golden 
section.'^  As  a  reswlt,  pleasing  unity  and  diversity  are 
both  secured.  The  symmetry  is  pronounced  in  the 
twenty-four  crystals  or  stars  which  are  used  as  a  decora- 
tion in  the  border..    There  are  twelve  different  kinds  of 


THE   FEELINGS   AND   THE   EMOTIONS       135 

stars,  but  each  star  has  six  main  subdivisions  and  six 
minor  subdivisions.  There  are  enough  stars  to  give 
diversity,  and  the  stars  are  sufficiently  alike  to  give  unity 
to  the  border  as  a  whole. 

The  white  rectangle  on  which  the  text  is  found  is 
slightly  too  long  to  be  in  the  exact  ratio  of  the  golden 
section,  while  the  darker  border  is  too  wide  to  meet 
the  conditiop,  but  these  rectangles*  are  as  near  to  the 
ratio  of  the  golden  section  as  could  be  produced  in  such 
a  complicated  figure  as  this. 

It  is  no  accident  that  the  conventional  ellipse  at  the 
top  of  the  advertisement  is  in  the  same  ratio  as  the 
rectangles,  i.e.y  that  of  the  golden  section.  If  this  adver- 
tisement w:ere  either  lengtliened  or  shortened,  its  pro- 
portions would  vary  from  that  of  the  "golden  section,"' 
and  the  results  would  be  recognized  by  the  ordinary 
observer  as  less  satisfactory. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of 
these  laws  of  symmetry  and  proportion.  They  con- 
tribute an  appreciable  amount  to  the  beautification  of 
the  advertising  page  and  hence  to  the  production  of 
pleasure  in  the  mind  of  every  possible  customer  who  sees 
the  advertisement.  Inasmuch  as  the  pleasure  of  the  cus- 
tomer is  of  such  fundamental  importance  the  advertiser 
cannot  afford  to  neglect  any  element  which  contributes 
to  the  total  pleasurable  effect.  There  are  other  laws 
which  are  of  importance  in  giving  a  pleasing  effect  to  a 
page.  Among  such  laws  might  be  mentioned'  ease  of 
comprehension,  ease  of  eye-movement,  appropriate  point 
of  orientation  and  utility. 

Space  will  not  admit  of  a  presentation  of  these  prin- 
ciples, but  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  has  been  attained 
if  the  reader  has  become  impressed  with  the  importance 
of  pleasing  the  possible  customer  and  with   the  sig- 


136       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

nificance  of  such  simple  laws  as  that  of  proportion  and 
symmetry  in  accomplishing -the  desired  result.  These 
laws  are  of  universal  application  in  laying  out  adver- 
tisements and  in  choosing  spaces,  and  an  appreciation  of 
their  importance  by  the  advertisers  of  the  land  would 
lead  to  a  beautification  of  the  advertising  pages  of  our 
publications  and  hence  to  an  increase  in  their  value  to 
the  advertiser. 


APPEALS  TO  CUSTOMER'S  SYMPATHY    137 


XII 

APPEALS  TO  THE  CUSTOMER'S 
SYMPATHY 

In  the  last  chapter  we  saw  the  significance  of  pleas- 
ure and  pain  in  inducing  the  proper  attitude  in  the 
minds  of  the  customers.  We  also  saw  how  a  pleasing 
effect  could  be  produced  by  the  judicious  use  of  the  laws 
of  symmetry  and  proportion  in  constructing  advertise- 
ments. In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  continue  the 
general  discussion  of  the  benefit  of  awakening  the  feel- 
ings and  emotions  and  will  confine  the  discussion  to  a 
single  emotion,  namely,  that  of  sympathy. 

By  sympathy  we  mean  in  general  a  particular  men- 
tal attitude  which  is  induced  by  the  realization  of  the 
fact  that  some  one  else  is  going  through  that  particular 
form  of  experience.  Thus  I  laugh  and  feel  happy  be- 
cause those  about  me  are  rejoicing,  and  I  weep  because 
I  see  my  friends  weep.  To  a  certain  extent  we  seem  to 
imagine  ourselves  as  in  the  condition  actually  experi- 
enced by  those  about  us  and  hence  feel  as  we  assume 
they  must  feel.  The  feelings  awakened  sympathetically 
are  intense  enough  to  cause  weeping,  laughing,  and  all 
the  ordinary  forms  of  expressing  the  emotions. 

We  are  not  indifferent  as  to  the  objects  upon  which 
we  bestow  our  sympathy.  I  feel  no  sympathy  with  the 
tree  that  is  struck  by  the  woodman's  axe  nor  for  the  stone 
that  is  crushed  under  the  wheels  of  a  traction  engine.  I 
may  feel  sympathy  for  the  mouse  whose  nest  is  destroyed 
or  for  the  horse  that  is  cruelly  treated.  I  sympathize 
with  animals  because  I  believe  that  they  have  feelings 


138       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

similar  to  mine.  I  feel  more  sympathy  for  the  higher 
animals  (dogs  and  horses)  than  I  do  for  the  lower  ani- 
mals, for  I  believe  that  their  feelings  are  more  like  mine. 
I  have  a  certain  amount  of  sympathy  for  all  humanity, 


JTHE  WINTER  .RESORT<Qf  the-worlcJ.  ^aj 

ntxcellencc,  is  Egypt,  easily  and  directly  reached ;  by  many 
luxurious  Transatlantic  linrr^  from  New  York  and  Boston  to 
Alexandria.  Cook's  Nile  Steamers  from  Cairo  to  the  First' 
and  Second  Cataracts,  (for  the  Sudan,  Khartoum,  etc..)  leave 
lour  times  weekly  November  to  March.  ;^  Select  Tours  and 
high  class  Cruises  from  New^York,  January,"  February  and 
March. ,\Thirty  Spring  and^Summer /Tours  to  Europe  (of 
season  1904.  For  plan>_of*i>liamers*prJDl£d.ji)atter,i»nci  to 
Jtcure  Jserlhs  appl^  jo' 

THOS.  COOK  &  SON 

^lcw  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Chicago* 
San  Francisco,  etc. 


No.  1. — I  do  not  share  their  pleasures. 


but  I  sympathize  most  with  those  of  my  own  set  or 
clique,  with  those  who  think  the  same  thoughts  that  I 
think  and  who  are  in  every  way  most  like  myself.  After 
those  of  this  inner  circle  of  acquaintances,  my  sympathy 
is  greatest  for  those  whom  I  might  call  my  ideals.    If  I 


APPEALS  TO  CUSTOMER'S  SYMPATHY    139 

desire  to  be  prosperous,  I  feel  keen  sympathy  with  the 
man 'who  appears  to  be  prosperous.  If  I  am  ambitious 
to  be  a  well-dressed  man,  I  feel  sympathetically  towards 
those  who  are  well  dressed.  If  I  desire  to  attain  a  cer- 
tain station  in  life,  I  feel  sympathetically  with  those 
who  appear  to  have  attained  my  ambition. 

In  the  advertisement  of  Thomas  Cook  &  Son  (No.  1) 
I  do  not  think  of  the  old  lady  and  gentleman  as  being  of 
'my  class.  They  are  not  my  ideals  and  I  therefore  have 
comparatively  little  sympathy  with  them.  They  are  en- 
joying themselves  immensely  and  probably  never  had  a 
better  time  in  all  their  lives  than  they  are  having  as 
members  of  this  touring  party,  but  as  I  look  at  them  I 
am  not  pleased  at  all.  Their  pleasure  is  not  contagious 
so  far  as  I  am  concerned.  I  seem  to  be  immune  from  all 
their  pleasures.  I  have  no  desire  to  imitate  their  actions 
and  become  a  member  of  Cook's  touring  party. 

In»contrast  with  this  first  advertisement  of  Thomas 
Cook  &  Son  their  advertisement  of  "Magara  to  the 
Saguenay"  (No.  2)  should  be  considered.  The  two  per- 
sons depicted  in  this  second  advertisement  approximate 
my  ideals.  They  seem  to  be  enjoying  the  trip  immensely. 
I  believe  that  they  have  good  taste  and  if  they  choose  this 
cruise  for  their  vacation  the  same  trip  would  be  desir- 
able for  me  too.  In  every  case  of  sympathy  we  imitate 
to  a  certain  degree  the  persons  with  whom  we  sympa- 
thize. The  action  of  these  young  people  stimulate  me  to 
imitate  their  action  by  purchasing  a  ticket  from  Cooks 
and  starting  on  the  trip. 

No.  3  is  a  reproduced  advertisement  of  a  fat-reducing 
compound.  The  illustration  is  supposed  to  be  ludicrous, 
but  to  me  it  is  ridiculous.  The  fat  lady  in  the  illustra- 
tion does  not  seem  to  make  the  best  of  a  bad  situation. 
She  dresses  in  plaids,  which,  as  every  corpulent  person 


140       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 


^ 


.-^^ 


OOK/S 

qilAVm  SERVICE 


^^^^</~^ 


CruisesT^ 
Cool  Iratitudes 


mAGARA 


THE    SACUENAY 


Fourteen  Delightful  Vacation  Days,  including  such  points 
of  interest  as  Toronto,  Alexandria  Bay;  among  the  Thou- 
sand Islands  by  daylight  and  moonlight;  down  the  noble 
St.  Lawrence  and  its  thrilling  rapids  to  Montreal.  Then 

A  WONDERFUL  SIX^DAY  CRUISE 

on  the  magnificent  steamship  "Cape  Eternity"— ex- 
clusively reserved — to  the  Saguenay  River!  Quebec, 
Lakes  Champlain  and  George  and  the  Hudson  River 
conclude  a  tour  of  beautiful  scenic  routes  unparal- 
leled on  this  continent.  Tours  start  from  Chicago 
July  17th  and  31st,  August  14th  and  28th.  From 
Niagara  Falls  one  day  later.  Early  reservations 
advisable. 

Ask   for   Particulars   of   Escorted    and    Individual   Tours   to 
CANADIAN    ROCKIES— ALASKA— PACIFIC    COAST- 
NATIONAL  PARKS— EUROPE— BERMUDA— SOUTH 
AMERICA— JAPAN— CHINA 

THOS-    COOK    &    SON,    CHICAGO 

203  South  Dearborn  St. 


No.  2 


APPEALS  TO  CUSTOMER'S  SYMPATHY   141 

knows,  serve  but  to  increase  the  apparent  size.  Both 
the  lady  and  the  gentleman  are  the  kind  of  people  whom 
we  do  not  admire,  who  are  far  from  our  ideals  and  who 
present  but  few  elements  of  likeness  to  ourselves.  The 
material  advertised  might  be  good  for  such  persons  as 

TOO  FAT 

A  person  generally  kno\«» 
when   he  is  beconiins  (00[ 
fleshy.  As  A  rule,  however, 
he  shuis  his  eyes  lo  tlie  fact, 
I  beheves  it  lo  be  only  tenH 
ponry,  antil  he  mddenly  reakze&' 
that  he  lias  routed  iiiany  poupdl 
and  DO  reincdy  appears  lo  be  (orth- 
coiituig.  loyou.wholiavedi tiled 
into  iliis  Situation,  we  can  offet 
truiJis  tliat  are  beyond  the  sliadow 
ol    questioning.    We  an   brinf; 
down  your  weight,  not  bv  elab- 
orate   and    expensive    reauciioa 
remedies,  but  by  simple  treatment 
(hat  brings  health  and  strength  int 
its  train.    Our  hies  are  filled  wiiU 
hundreds,  yes  thousands  of  iesr\r 
nonob  to  this  effect,  and  art  th^ 
best  guarantees  ol  our  signal  suc- 
cess   Hereare  tv»oof  many.  Mrsi 
S.  Mann.  o(  LaMoite.  la.,  writes : 
Ml  X  r ears  ago  t  l<M(  TO  lb*y 
of  Fn(  in  3  wtoiilliK  b.v  II19 
»ll  mfSlsoil  »n4  ■  lt»«e  it  Aft 
e:»ino4l  nil  «Miiir«  iti  nciclift 
»liic«>. 

LOST  40  POUMDS.  s^.'.- te  VoT^ii?.US^ 

VThrte  years  ago  1  took  a  lour  month**  ueatment  and  wa»\ 
'reductd  4  0  lbs.  m  weight.  1  have  DOt  gained  any  in  wcighi 
»uice."    We  are  giving  away  barrels 

and       Barrels  of 
Sample  Boxes  Free 

just  to   provf   how  eflccMve.  plestsant 

^nd   4<Ue    ihts   Tfinedv    is.    to  reduce 

•vvghi      II  you  v»ani  one.  send  us  yoar 

>o:«me  iiid  address  anrt  4<   to  cover  posi- 

Age.  etc       E^cii  box  is  mAiled  in  a  plain 

Acaled  wrapper  wuli  no  .idvertisin?  on  it 

4o  indicate  what  it  couUms.   Pnce.  laige 

Ci'e  but,  SI  00  posipaid.    Correspond- 

mce  strictly  confidenii  it. 

HiU  Cheniidl  Co  ,  De^i-  H.  M  .  St  lK>uis,  Mo, 

No.  3. — Ridiculous  but  not  ludicrous. 


the  illustration  depicts,  but  that  is  no  reason  for  me  to 
imitate  their  actions  and  become  one  with  them  in  any 
line  of  action. 

No.  4  is  a  reproduction  of  an  advertisement  of  a  fat- 
reducing  tablet,  and  the  illustration  is  that  of  a  lady 
who  at  once  begets  my  sympathy.  She  is  apparently 
making  the  best  of  a  bad  condition.    If  she  is  going  to 


142       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 


use  the  Howard  Obesity  Ointment,  it  certainly  must  be 
worth  considering.  I  feel  sorry  for  her  and  sympathize 
with  her  in  her  affliction.  She  certainly  feels  about  the 
matter  just  as  I  should,  and  consequently  it  is  easy  for 
me  to  imagine  myself  in  her  stead  and  to  feel  the  need 


WASH  YOUR  FAT  AWAY 

Howard  Obesity  Ointment 

f^  External  Remedy 


^ikK  to  which  11  IS  applied 
-restoring  the  natural 
Mooin  o)f  jouth.ieaMi.c;  uo 
wtiuUksot  flubbiuetrf. 

No  iia-.-cr  r-»  flruj^b  that 
nut!  the  -I  n-iacn  ;  no  tiiet- 
itikf;  Hi  >.  '  I'l^e  of  habits 
whattv'.T. 

The  apphcation  is  "^ini- ' 
I  Mciiy  Uieit.  Yoii  nu.r<  ly 
.ippiy  the  vi'Umetil  to  t.ie 
part  >ou  wish  rt-d'.ccl, 
then  literallv  "-rash  tiu 
J  il  fi.i'rtv"  vn;>lo'-r  •i-uiy 
loilie  most  deh^. lie  sV.  ii. 

We  Guarantee 
Results 

On  receipt  of  k.  quest  we  will 
send  you  oat  book  on  ob<:'-ity, 
which  gi%es  crii.t.>.  atid  f.icts  of 
the  new  cii=.co\,t-ry— a  cure  by 
at>sorplio!i 

All    C^yrret'p.'Siileiii'o  Contiidned 
(onftdciitial. 

THE  HOWARD  CO. 

suite  •«<>.•>•>•  V>  't^'-  '^>d  %U 


I 


No.  4. — She   begets  my  sympathy. 

for  relief  from  obesity  and  to  take  the  necessary  steps 
to  secure  such  relief. 

The  tragedy  and  the  comedy  are  forms  of  literature 
and  of  dramatic  representations  which  have  always  been 
popular.  There  is  scarcely  a  tragedy  without  its  comic 
parts,  but  frequently  there  are  comedies  without  any 
element  of  the  tragic.  There  are  probably  more  great 
tragedies  than  comedies,  but  it  is  true  that  the  ordinary 


APPEALS  TO  CUSTOMER'S  SYMPATHY    143 

men  and  women  read  more  comedy  (including  the  comic 
in  a  so-called  tragedy)  than  tragedy,  and  that  the  same 
holds  true  for  their  attendance  upon  dramatic  repre- 
sentations. 

In  a  comedy  the  rollicking  fun  may  be  introduced 
immediately,  and  the  reader  or  the  spectator  may  be 
brought  into  the  spirit  of  the  whole  at  once  without 
danger  of  any  shock  to  the  sensibilities  because  of  the 
suddenness  of  the  introduction  of  the  emotional  element. 

In  tragedy  the  reader  or  the  spectator  is  usually  inr 
troduced  gradually  into  the  emotional  tone  of  the  whole. 
The  hero  (if  it  be  the  hero  who  suffers)  is  first  intro- 
duced, and  then  after  we  feel  acquainted  with  him  and 
have  an  interest  in  him,  we  are  called  upon  to  enter 
into  his  sorrows  and  to  feel  with  him. 

In  a  political  campaign  the  politician  may  relate  the 
instances  of  wrong  and  oppression  for  which  the  oppos- 
ing party  is  responsible,  or  else  he  may  tell  of  the  pros- 
perity and  good  cheer  brought  about  by  his  own  party. 
In  raising  money  to  found  a  charitable  institution  the 
philanthropist  may  tell  of  the  squalor  and  misery  of  the 
persons  in  the  district  in  which  the  institution  is  to  be 
located,  or  else  he  may  tell  of  the  joys  which  the  institu- 
tion will  bring  into  the  lives  of  the  persons  concerned. 
In  appealing  for  funds  to  carry  on  the  missionary  work 
in  Africa  the  minister  may  describe  the  deplorable  and' 
almost  hopeless  condition  of  the  natives,  or  else  he  may 
tell  of  the  wonderful  successes  of  the  missionaries  al- 
ready on  the  field,  and  appeal  for  funds  to  continue  the 
already  successful  work.  It  certainly  is  questionable 
which  method  the  politician,  the  philanthropist,  the 
minister,  etc.,  should  follow.  As  far  as  my  personal  ob- 
servations go,  it  seems  to  me  that  when  sympathy  for 
sorrow  is  successfully  awakened,  it  is  more  effective  in 


144       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

bringing  about  the  desired  action  than  is  sympathy  for 
the  joys  of  the  persons  concerned.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  the  persons  for  whom  the  appeal  is 
being  made  in  all  these  cases  are  those  for  whom  the 
hearers  have  more  than  a  passing  interest,  and  the  cre- 
ating of  this  interest  may  be  the  product  of  a  long  proc- 
ess of  education.  It  may  also  be  true  that  these  most 
successful  pathetic  appeals  would  be  avoided  in  the 
future  by  the  very  persons  who  had  been  moved  most 
effectively.  The  depiction  of  the  darker  sides  of  life  may 
be  very  effective,  but  the  depiction  of  the  rosier  hues  is 
more  attractive  to  most  people. 

It  is  said  that  savages  laugh  more  loudly  than  persons 
in  civilized  countries,  and  in  general  loud  or  boisterous 
expressions  of  pleasure  are  not  regarded  as  in  good 
taste.  Culture  and  good  breeding  have  decreed  that  we 
shall  not  express  our  griefs  in  the  sight  or  hearing  of 
others.  In  fact,  it  is  not  in  good  form  to  express  grief 
at  all.  We  are  not  allowed  to  parade  our  sorrows  before 
the  gaze  of  the  public.  It  seems  to  be  assumed  that 
every  one  has  sorrows  enough  of  his  own  and  therefore 
should  not  be  called  upon  to  share  the  sorrows  of  others. 
This  attitude  towards  expressions  of  grief  seems  to  be 
quite  universal,  and  is  taken  so  much  as  a  matter  of 
course  that  we  feel  offended  when  persons  seek  to 
awaken  our  sympathy  by  any  form  of  external  mani- 
festation. Even  in  dramatic  representations  the  expres- 
sions which  accompany  sorrow  or  pain  are  largely 
subordinated  to  apparent  attempts  to  stifle  such  mani- 
festations. We  weep  more  readily  with  those  who  seem 
to  have  great  cause  for  weeping,  but  restrain  it,  than 
for  those  who  give  way  to  their  feelings.  This  attitude 
towards  the  manifestations  of  sorrow  often  causes  us  to 
be  offended  by  manifestations  of  suffering.    Thus  in  No. 


APPEALS  TO  CUSTOMER'S  SYMPATHY    145 

5  there  is  an  appeal  made  to  our  sympathy  in  such  a 
rude  manner  that  we  feel  angry  toward  the  advertiser, 
if  not  with  the  publisher,  for  allowing  us  to  be  insulted 
by  such  an  audacious  attack  upon  our  sensibilities. 
One  function  of  representations  of  feelings  and  emo- 

DISEASED  LUNGS 

art  the  rctult  o(  a  ncjitded  coa jh  .or  mI^ 

KU  a  ^rave  mliUke  to  ntjied  any  hnt»f 

chlat  afTedion.  You  may  have  bW 

cipitnt  coiuumption  btfon/ 

you  realize  tt..^. 

.  Tb*  following  are  tiUI  quattiou^ 
Save  you  caught  a  cold  f 
Have  you  a  tevere,  racking  amgkt 
Js  your  throat  hoarte  and  tonii 
Do  you  cough  up  nueutf 
Are  yowhaggard  and  losing fieth? 


Th«se  are  sAioBi  coodiUoas,  which,  if  ootpraapitr 
conect«d,  mil  aZect  tou  laogs  asd  io  a  ihort  UiM 
Toa  wUi  be  on  tb«  roaa  to  eouamptioal 


There  ia  a  tare  core  for  a  coM  aod  all  the  abo««: 
aitmenta,  erea  indpieot  co&auniptioii,,in  Dr.  Biiir» 
Cough  STTop.  Ida  ksoini  the  world  orer  aa  a  famovi 
docuir's  prescripUoa  that  haa  cured  thooaaada  ft 
cues.  It  ia  prescribed  bf  phyaiciasa  beeaoa*  tbaf ! 
know  it  haa  aared  many  people  from  an  earlr  fnn,' 
Poo't  delay ;  gae  bow  before  too  lat«  the  cewmllA' 

Dr.  Bull's 
Cough  Syrup 


eapecUli; 


'  ( eaotbt  a  bsd  oo14.  I'^sraboadrnft.asathiabll 
cUliF,  I  »u  troabled  nrj  badir  vltn  li,  aod  noib- 
vould  f1>e  me  relief  I  oouiDed  ap  pbl<(iB  anJ 
wu*|ued  uiou  righl  aloDf  Ploailf  a  tr1«o4  liiTlMi 
me  Of  IT  a  twiUe  or  Dr.  BulVi  C«a|b  Brnip.  I  did  mI 
haro  tPDCb  (aJth  Io  Itatflrvi  bo«<Ter,  »bca  I  took  laa 
foonh  do«.  I  be^aa  Co  mtnd.  and  witbla  a  jhortUoaa 
coniulsriog  the  KTlooaii«»  of  tnj  caK.  I  vat  esUrel* 
cored  br  i5l!  miv^elAia  rtmrdT     I  tbul  oeTcr  be  wlif 

of  laviDf  to;  life.    It  u  worth  tc6  wtlrbt  10  sold."    Mfc 

Tboa  Haoir&bao.  l«  C  Si- .  Booib  Bi«loo,  tAuT      • 

I  bad  a  very  ie»fre  atuck  of  the  Ortppe  vhtett 

cidarentronbteaomecockb.    1  iri«d  m»or  rcii.rdi<«biii<»ufd  notnl 

'arordof  Dr.  Bulla  Coufcb  Svrtjp.    I  porcbaaed  a  bottle  aod  alreadr  ui« 

,73°°°  ""?;  aoo,™"  lie  relrf  r.  aod  a  2ia  boiile  cured  me.    it  l>  certaiolr  a  graod  teoiedr  toe 

VCrtpKe.ooid«aod  cougba-  Wid.  Hildebrand.CtuatDin  f.  o..  Cauwba  Co.W  C  ' 

I)r.  Bttll'aCoagh  Sn  ip  w.ll  core  yoor  long  trouble.  It  will  do  it  wilhont  faD.  KootkeC 
i^w^AVLTk'^  eqoal.^  it  ia  caratife-qBaUties,  aod  for  this  ruaoa  joa  cannot  afford  (• 
•xportaeal  with  other  remeJiea. 

AVOID  SUBSTITUTES.  "'^.r-^-^--^-» 

«»17  remedy  which  wiHisalj(>9fJiiPga,.Ull»UJrBggi8t«.2ic,  50c.  and  llA). 

No.    5. — An    outrage    upon    the    reader's    sen- 
sibility. 

tions  is  to  attract  attention.  Thus  No.  6  is  one  of  the 
most  attractive  advertisements  in  the  current  issue  of 
our  magazines.  The  smile  is  very  contagious  and  the 
whole  effect  is  so  clear  and  so  pleasing  that  I  can 
scarcely  turn  the  page  without  stopping  to  look  at  it. 
As  far  as  the  attention  value  is  concerned,  equally 


146       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

good  results  may  be  secured  by  representations  of  sor- 
row. Thus  in  No.  7  sorrow  is  depicted  in  such  a  way 
that  it  succeeds  in  attracting  the  attention  of  the  most 
casual  reader  of  advertisements. 

Nos.   6   and  7  are  reproductions  of  advertisements 


i  I     flo  ?n!I  be  aciighl'.d  if  you  ,  --os.  r.t.  him 

ConkHn's  Self -Filling  Pen. 

He  knows  it  is  the  highest  quality,  most 
perfect  fountain  pen  in  tb"  v/orld,  a  cea- 
tury  ahead  of  the  dropocr  Clliii^  kjtids; 
the  only  fountain  pen  that  c-.'.n  be  tilled 
autoraa'ticf  Uy  or  that  succcsbtuily  feeds 
copyiHK  lUE. 

Mrs.  GroVer  Cleveland  Satfs: 

PriiicPtou,  March  12th.  190.'V 
Tour  pen:,  would    h<>  pivtty  -ev.r*-  to 
Cfiv.i  )artre  sciIo-j  hen.'  IC  tbt;^   were 
oii^e  !■>  ally  kuowa. 

cm  FREE  HOOKS  teive  farther  «>oriviacjn^ 
evKJonco.  and  Ufty  ori>tmal  i>aK'^rf>ttii>n«  forcor 
rvctiCfj  common  errori  U\  ha-ivdw  niinijr. 


No. 


6. — A    successful    appeal    to    sympathy    for 
pleasure. 


which  represent  the  opposite  sorts  of  feelings,  and  each 
awakens  its  appropriate  kind  of  sympathy,  and  yet  it 
is  difficult  to  tell  which  advertisement  has  the  greater 
attentive  value.  Personally,  I  enter  into  the  pleasure 
of  the  smiling  young  man  more  fully  than  I  enter  into 
the  sorrow  of  the  grief-stricken  one. 


APPEALS  TO  CUSTOMER'S  SYMPATHY    147 

These  examples  are  sufficient  to  show  that  appeals  to 
the  sympathy,  either  for  pleasure  or  for  pain,  may  be 
used  with  great  profit  by  the  advertiser.  We  are  not 
cold,  logical  machines,  but  we  are  all  human  beings,  with 
hearts  in  our  breasts  and  blood  in  our  veins,  and  we 


Pelmaa  System  of  Memor^Training 


^.J£i^TStH:7£' 


The  Pelman  School  of  Memory  Training,  ^ 

1661  Masonic  Templi.  CHICAPO, 


No.    7.-^A   successful    appeal   to   sympathy   for 
sorrow. 

enjoy  the  depictions  of  real  life  with  all  its  joys  and 
sorrows.  Whether  the  dark  or  the  bright  side  of  life 
offers  the  most  material  for  the  advertiser  may  be  ques- 
tionable, but  there  is  certainly  no  question  as  to  the 
advisability  of  appeals  to  the  sympathies. 

The  time  is  coming,  and  indeed  has  come,  when  the 
advertising  pages  of  our  publications  must  be  edited  as 


148       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

carefully  as  the  pages  of  the  literary  department.  The 
advertising  manager  should  not  only  refuse  objection- 
able advertisers,  but  he  should  refuse  all  objectionable 
advertisements.  It  is  quite  possible  that  an  advertise- 
ment which  might  be  good  for  the  individual  advertiser 
would  be  injurious  to  the  many  who  are  occupying  space 
in  the  same  publication. 

The  advertisement  reproduced  in  No.  5  may  be  good 
for  the  firm  placing  it.  It  may  be  attractive  to  such 
persons  as  need  the  cough  syrup,  but  it  may  be  so  dis- 
gusting to  all  other  persons  that  it  renders  them  an- 
tagonistic and  unsympathetic  to  all  the  advertisements 
seen  for  minutes  after  they  have  looked  at  this  one.  It 
might  be  a  very  profitable  advertisement  for  Dr.  Bull, 
but  the  advertising  manager,  by  accepting  it,  has  reduced 
the  value  of  all  other  advertising  spaces.  The  effect 
which  would  be  produced  on  adjoining  spaces  by  such 
advertisements  as  are  shown  in  Nos.  1,  3,  and  7  might 
also  be  questionable. 

If  you  knew  that  one  magazine  carried  advertise- 
ments which  were  pathetic  in  their  illustrations  and 
descriptions  and  that  another  magazine  carried  only 
bright  and  cheerful  advertisements,  which  one  would 
you  pick  up  and  look  through?  I  believe  that  most  per- 
sons would  choose  the  magazine  advertisements  that 
present  only  the  more  cheerful  aspects  of  life.  If  such 
is  the  case,  it  is  the  duty  of  advertising  managers  to 
see  that  the  advertising  pages  of  their  publications  are 
rendered  attractive. 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS  149 


XIII 
HUMAN  INSTINCTS 

We  are  all  accustomed  to  think  of  the  actions  of  ani- 
mals as  instinctive,  but  we  are  inclined  to  object  to  the 
application  to  human  actions  of  anything  which  would 
obliterate  the  distinctions  between  human  and  animal 
actions,  and  we  do  not  usually  speak  of  the  actions  of 
man  as  being  instinctive. 

No  one  can  carefully  observe  the  actions  of  animals 
without  being  impressed  witli  both  the  similarities  and 
the  differences  between  human  and  animal  actions.  In 
his  native  and  ordinary  environment  the  animal  shows 
a  cleverness  of  action  which  is  hardly  to  be  distinguished 
from  that  of  a  man.  In  a  new  environment  and  in  the 
presence  of  unfamiliar  objects,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
animal  displays  a  stupidity  which  is  most  astounding. 

The  animal  has  but  few  instincts,  and  these  few  are 
sufficient  for  his  ordinary  environment,  but  in  the  pres- 
ence of  environments  unusual  to  his  species  he  is  at  a  loss 
as  to  his  actions.  Man  possesses  many  more  instincts 
than  the  animal  and  in  addition  has  reason,  which  can 
control  his  instinctive  actions  and  thus  obliterate  their 
instinctive  appearance,  although  such  actions  are  funda- 
mentally instinctive. 

An  instinct  is  usually  defined  as  the  faculty  of  acting 
in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  certain  ends,  without  fore- 
sight of  the  ends,  and  without  previous  education  in  the 
performance.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  term  is  used 
throughout  this  discussion. 


150       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

The  following  quotation  from  Professor  James  will 
undoubtedly  prove  of  interest : 

^^NoWy  why  do  the  various  animals  do  what  seem  to 
us  such  strange  things^  in  the  presence  of  such  out- 
landish stimuli?  Why  does  the  hen,  for  example,  sub- 
mit herself  to  the  tedium  of  incubating  such  a  fearfully 
uninteresting  set  of  objects  as  a  nestful  of  eggs,  unless 
she  has  some  sort  of  a  prophetic  inkling  of  the  results? 
We  can  only  interpret  the  instincts  of  brutes  by  what  we 
know  of  instincts  in  ourselves.  Why  do  men  always  lie 
down,  when  they  can,  on  soft  beds  rather  than  on  hard 
floors?  Why  do  they  sit  around  the  stove  on  a  cold  day? 
Why  do  they  prefer  saddle  of  mutton  and  champagne  to 
hard- tack  and  ditch-water?  Why  does  the  maiden  in- 
terest the  youth  so  that  everything  about  lier  seems  more 
important  and  significant  than  anytliing  else  in  the 
world?  Nothing  more  can  be  said  than  that  these  are 
human  ways,  and  that  every  creature  likes  its  own  ways, 
and  takes  to  following  them  as  a'  matter  of  course. 
Science  may  come  and  consider  these  ways,  and  find  that 
most  of  them  are  useful.  But  it  is  not  for  the  sake  of 
their  utility  that  they  are  followed  but  because  at  the 
moment  of  following  them  we  feel  that  that  is  the  only 
appropriate  and  natural  thing  to  do.  Not  one  man  in 
a  billion,  when  taking  his  dinner,  ever  thinks  of  utility. 
He  eats  because  the  food  tastes  good  and  makes  him 
want  more.  If  you  ask  him  why  he  should  want  to  eat 
more  of  what  tastes  like  that,  instead  of  revering  you  as 
a  philosopher,  he  w^ould  probably  laugh  at  you  as  a  fool. 
The  connection  between  the  savory  sensation  and  the  act 
it  awakens  is  for  him  absolute  and  needs  no  proof  but 
its  own  evidence.  It  takes,  in  short,  what  Berkeley  calls 
a  mind  debauched  by  learning  to  carry  the  process  of 
making  the  natural  seem  strange,  so  far  as  to  ask  for  the 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS  151 

why  of  any  instinctive  human  act.  To  the  metaphysician 
alone  can  occur  such  questions  as:  Why  do  we  smile, 
pleased,  and  not  scowl?  Why  are  we  unable  to  talk  to 
a  crowd  as  we  talk  to  a  single  friend?  Why  does  a  par- 
ticular maiden  turn  our  wits  so  upside-down?  The 
common  man  can  only  say,  ^Of  course  we  smile,  of  course 
our  heart  palpitates  at  the  sight  of  the  crowd,  of  course 
we  love  the  maiden,  that  beautiful  soul  clad  in  that 
perfect  form,  so  palpably  and  flagrantly  made  from  all 
eternity  to  be  loved  !■ 

"And  so,  probably,  does  each  animal  feel  about  the 
particular  things  it  tends  to  do  in  the  presence  of  par- 
ticular objects.  To  the  lion  it  is  the.  lioness  which  is 
made  to  be  loved;  to  the  bear,  the  she-bear.  To  the 
broody  hen  the  notion  would  probably  seem  monstrous 
that  there  should  be  a  creature  in  the  world  to  whom  a 
nestful  of  eggs  was  not  the  utterly  fascinating  and 
precious  and  never-to-be-too-much-sat-upon  object  which 
it  is  to  her. 

"Thus  we  may  be  sure  that,  however  mysterious  some 
animals'  instincts  may  appear  to  us,  our  instincts  will 
appear  no  less  mysterious  to  them.  And  we  may  con- 
clude that,  to  the  animal  which  obeys  it,  every  impulse 
and  every  step  of  every  instinct  shines  with  its  own 
sufficient  light,  and  seems  at  the  moment  the  only 
eternally  right  and  proper  thing  to  do.  It  is  done  for 
its  own  sake  exclusively. '^ 

Every  instinctive  action  is  concrete  and  specific,  and 
is  the  response  of  an  individual  directed  toward  some 
object.  There  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  methods  of 
classifying  instincts,  and  any  method  is  justifiable  if  it 
is  true  and  if  it  is  helpful  in  making  clear  the  nature 
of  instincts,  or  is  of  service  in  any  way.  The  classifica- 
tion we  propose  is  justified  in  that  it  is  true  to  the  facts, 


152       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

and  that  it  groups  these  actions  in  such  a  way  that  they 
may  be  better  understood,  and  that  the  knowledge  thus 
secured  may  be  utilized. 

As  was  said  above,  every  instinctive  action  is  directed 
toward  some  object,  but  the  effect  of  the  action  is  to 
bring  the  object  into  a  relation  which  will  make  it  help- 
ful toward  the  preservation  or  furtherance  of  the  inter- 
ests of  the  individual  or  of  the  species.  Thus  when  an 
animal  acts  according  to  his  ^'hunting  instinct"  he  acts 
ioward  his  victim  in  such  a  way  that  he  makes  the  victim 
serve  his  interests  in  providing  food  for  himself  and, 
perhaps,  for  others  of  his  species.  If  instincts  may  be 
classified  according  as  they  tend  toward  the  preserva- 
tion and  furtherance  of  the  interests  of  the  individual, 
our  classification  will  be  based  upon  the  interests  of 
the  individual,  which  are  preserved  and  furthered, 
rather  than  upon  the  manner  of  the  preservation  and 
furtherance. 

The  first  interest  of  the  individual  which  is  instinc- 
tively preserved  and  furthered  is  his  material  posses- 
sions. The  individual  acts  instinctively  toward  every 
material  thing  which  he  may  call  ^^my'^  or  ^^mine/^  Of  all 
the  material  things  to  which  I  apply  the  term  my  or 
mine,  there  is  nothing  to  which  the  term  seems  so  appli- 
cable as  to  my  body.  This  is  so  intimately  mine  that  the 
distinction  between  it  and  myself  or  me  cannot  be 
definitely  drawn.  I  avoid  extremes  of  temperature,  not 
because  I  think  that  thus  I  can  preserve  and  further 
the  development  of  the  body,  but  because  it  is  pleasant 
for  me  to  act  that  way.  I  do  not  refuse  to  drink  stag- 
nant water  and  seek  running  water  because  I  think  it  is 
best  for  my  bodily  health  to  do  so,  but  because  I  like  the 
taste  of  running  water  and  not  of  stagnant  water.  I  do 
not  refuse  grass,  green  fruit,  and  decayed  vegetables  and 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS  153 

seek  beefsteak,  ripe  fruit,  and  fresh  vegetables  merely 
or  principally  because  the  former  are  injurious  and  the 
latter  beneficial  to  my  bodily  health.  I  decide  on  what 
I  shall  eat  and  drink  according  as  it  pleases  or  displeases 
me  in  the  eating.  The  lower  animals  probably  never 
do  anything  for  the  sake  of  the  preservation  and  further- 
ance of  their  bodies,  but  their  instincts  guide  them  so 
accurately  that  it  seems  to  us  they  must  do  some  of 
these  things  with  that  in  view.  They  choose  the  right 
food,  the  right  drink,  the  right  companions,  etc.,  etc., 
because  these  things  seem  pleasant  to  them. 

Herbert  Spencer  was  of  the  opinion  that  mankind 
could  follow  instinct  in  the  choice  of  food,  drink,  rest, 
exercise,  temperature,  etc.,  and  that  under  normal  con- 
ditions the  choice  would  be  such  as  would  most  cer- 
tainly conduce  the  highest  preservation  and  development 
of  the  body.  He  believed  that  our  instincts  are  so  strong 
and  so  true  that,  when  not  perverted,  they  will  act  wisely 
in  the  presence  of  the  appropriate  stimuli,  and  that  the 
bodily  interests  will  best  be  furthered  by  passively  fol- 
lowing such  instincts.  He  would  hold  that  if  that  which 
is  good  for  the  body  be  presented  in  the  proper  light, 
we  shall,  of  necessity,  choose  it  and  make  the  appro- 
priate effort  to  secure  it. 

If  I  think  anything  would  taste  good,  I  cannot  keep 
from  desiring  it.  I  do  not  stop  to  consider  whether 
it  would  be  good  for  me  or  not.  If  it  tastes  good,  that 
is  sufficient.  Nature  has  provided  me  with  an  instinc- 
tive desire  to  eat  any  and  every  thing  that  tastes  good, 
and,  in  general,  such  an  instinct  works  wholly  good.  I 
am  a  reasoning  creature,  and  it  might  be  supposed  that 
I  would  select  from  the  different  foods  those  which  were 
best  for  my  health,  irrespective  of  their  tastes.  I  find 
that  my  instinct  is  stronger  than  my  reason  in  choosing 


154       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

what  I  shall  eat.  In  the  advertisement  of  Karo  (No.  1) 
is  this  sentence :  '^  .  .  it  makes  you  eat,"  and  also 
this:  ".  .  .  gives  a  relish  you  can't  resist.''  I  should 
buy  Karo  at  once  if  I  believed  it  would  be  so  enticing 
that  it  would  make  me  go  contrary  to  my  reason  and 
eat  it  even  if  my  better  judgment  told  me  I  should  not. 
If  I  had  been  afflicted  for  years  with  indigestion  I  might 
do  otherwise,  but  most  persons  have  not  yet  been  thus 
afflicted,  and  I  feel  confident  that  food  advertisements 
have  greatly  improved  during  recent  years,  for  they  are 


A  Breakfast  Treat 
That  Makes  You  Eat 

iIUfo'Xa«ii"Sy>Bpris-ihfTmrc;»tbIden  asitnccitAr  con  | 
with  all  the  nutritive  elements  so  chanunrn'^tif  of.tbir 
cnrrgy.producing,  Mrenph-piving  crrcal  rctaincd.fj.If  j 
flavor  IS  so  good,  delicious,  so  djffercnt.  it  mairs  you  ca« 
Adds  zest  to  Ihepnddle  rakes  and  gives  a  relish  yot# 
can't  resist/no  maner  how  poor  thc.^appentc  n»ay  Tie, 
MakdB  vihe^mommgVmca!  mating**  It's  l/iergrrn» 
tpnad for  daih  breaa^^StM  in  au-light.  Irtuoi^si^iiai 


CORN  SYRUP 

««  PSOOUCTS  CO.. 

•  yon  ■««  CMuo- 


No.    1. — An   appeal   to    the   instinct  of 
bodily  preservation. 


emphasizing  more  and  more  the  taste  of  the  food,  and 
are  making  health  qualities  secondary,  while  price  is 
being  emphasized  less. 

The  senses  (the  organs  of  sight,  sound,  taste,  smell, 
temperature,  and  touch)  are  the  guardians  of  the  body, 
and  whatever  appears  good  to  these  sentinels  is  in- 
stantly desired,  and  ordinarily  such  things  tend  to  the 
preservation  and  furtherance  of  the  welfare  of  the  body, 
but  we  choose  them  simply  because  they  appear  pleasing 
and  not  for  ulterior  ends. 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS  155 

My  clothes  are  in  a  special  sense  mine.  We  come  to 
think  of  them  almost  as  of  our  very  bodies.  How  a  small 
child  will  cry  if  his  hat  blows  off  or  is  taken!  In  our 
modern  forms  of  civilization  this  instinct  is  weakened 
by  the  fact  that  we  have  so  many  clothes  and  change 
them  so  often  that  we  hardly  have  time  to  become  at- 
tached to  any  article  of  raiment  before  it  is  discarded. 
The  close  personal  attachment  which  we  have  for  our 
clothing  is  beautifully  brought  out  by  Professor  James : 
"We  so  appropriate  our  clothes  and  identify  ourselves 
with  them  that  there  are  few  of  us  who,  if  asked  to 
choose  between  having  a  beautiful  body  clad  in  raiment 
perpetually  shabby  and  having  an  ugly  form  always 
spotlessly  attired,  would  not  hesitate  a  moment." 

We  are  all  greatly  attracted  by  the  protection  and 
ornamentation  supplied  by  clothing.  The  amount  of 
time  which  most  women  and  some  men  spend  on  the 
subject  of  dress  might  seem  absurd  to  a  critic,  but 
such  are  our  human  ways,  and  they  seem  good  to  us. 
Magazines  devoted  to  fashions,  shop-windows  decorated 
with  beautiful  garments,  advertisements  of  clothing — 
all  these  have  an  unending  attraction  for  us.  Clothing 
advertisements  are  read  with  avidity,  and  it  has  been 
discovered  that  all  forms  of  clothing  can  be  advertised 
with  profit  by  means  of  the  printed  page. 

The  most  careful  observers  of  the  actions  of  bees 
assure  us  that  the  little  industrious  bee  gathers  and 
stores  away  the  honey  simply  because  she  enjoys  the 
process,  and  not  because  she  foresees  the  necessity  for 
the  honey  which  will  come  upon  her  during  the  wintry 
months.  To  say  that  the  young  bee  has  a  prophetic 
insight  of  the  coming  winter  is  to  attribute  to  it  wisdom 
which  is  far  above  human  wisdom. 

Likewise  the  squirrel  is  said  to  collect  nuts  and  store 


156       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

them  away  simply  because  that  is  the  very  action  which 
is  in  itself  more  delightful  than  any  other  possible 
action.  The  squirrel  does  not  store  the  nuts  so  that  he 
will  have  them  to  eat  during  the  winter,  but  when  the 
winter  comes  on  and  nothing  better  is  at  hand  of  course 
he  will  eat  them.  If  he  had  not  stored  them  he  would 
have  starved  during  the  winter,  but  he  did  not  store 
them  in  order  that  he  might  not  be  reduced  to  starva- 
tion. As  far  as  the  individual  squirrel  is  concerned,  it 
was  purely  accidental  that  his  storing  the  nuts  provided 
against  starvation. 

There  are  many  species  of  animals  which  thus  collect 
and  store  away  articles,  and  in  some  cases — in  an  un- 
usual environment — the  results  are  very  peculiar.  Pro- 
fessor Silliman  thus  describes  the  hoardings  of  a  wood- 
rat  in  California  made  in  an  empty  stove  of  an  unoccu- 
pied house : 

"I  found  the  outside  to  be  composed  entirely  of  spikes, 
all  laid  with  symmetry,  so  as  to  present  the  points  of  the 
nails  outward.  In  the  center  of  this  mass  was  the  nest, 
composed  of  finely  divided  fibers  of  hemp-packing.  In- 
terlaced with  the  spikes  were  the  following :  About  two 
dozen  knives,  forks,  and  spoons ;  all  the  butcher's  knives, 
three  in  number ;  a  large  carving  knife,  fork  and  steel ; 
several  large  plugs  of  tobacco;  an  old  purse  containing 
some  silver,  matches,  and  tobacco;  nearly  all  the  tools 
from  the  tool-closets,  with  several  large  augers,  all  of 
which  must  have  been  transported  some  distance,  as 
they  were  originally  stored  in  different  parts  of  the 
house.  The  outside  casing  of  a  silver  watch  was  dis- 
posed of  in  one  part  of  the  pile,  the  glass  of  the  same 
watch  in  another,  and  the  works  in  still  another.^ 

There  are  very  few  persons  who  at  some  time  in  their 
lives  have  not  made  a  collection  of  some  sort.     The  little 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS  157 

girls  who  make  collections  of  buttons  become  exceedingly 
enthusiastic  in  their  endeavors  to  make  large  collections, 
and,  of  course,  if  possible,  to  secure  the  most  beautiful. 
If  all  the  girls  of  the  neighborhood  are  making  collec- 
tions too,  the  interest  is  greatly  heightened.  It  is  rather 
remarkable  how  all  the  children  of  a  neighborhood  may 
become  interested  in  collecting  such  things  as  cancelled 
postage-stamps.  Such  a  thing  would  hardly  be  possible 
if  the  children  did  not  have  an  instinctive  desire  to 
make  collections. 

Making  collections  and  hoarding  is  not  confined  to 
children,  but  is  common  to  all  adults.  Occasionally 
some  individual  becomes  absorbed  in  the  process  more 
than  others  and  the  results  seem  to  us  to  be  ludicrous, 
but  they  are  instructive  rather  than  ludicrous.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  description  of  the  hoardings  of  a  miser's  den 
which  was  emptied  by  the  Boston  City  Board  of  Health : 

^^He  gathered  old  newspapers,  wrapping-paper,  in- 
capacitated umbrellas,  canes,  pieces  of  common  wire, 
cast-off  clothing,  empty  barrels,  pieces  of  iron,  old  bones, 
battered  tinware,  fractured  pots,  and  bushels  of  such 
miscellany  as  is  to  be  found  only  at  the  city  ^dump.' 
The  empty  barrels  were  filled,  shelves  were  filled,  every 
hole  and  corner  was  filled,  and  in  order  to  make  more 
storage-room,  ^the  hermit'  covered  his  store-room  with  a 
network  of  ropes,  and  hung  the  ropes  as  full  as  they 
could  hold  of  his  curious  collections.  There  was  noth- 
ing one  could  think  of  that  wasn't  in  that  room.  As  a 
wood-sawyer,  the  old  man  had  never  thrown  away  a 
saw-blade  or  a  woodbuck.  The  bucks  were  rheumatic 
and  couldn't  stand  up,  and  the  saw-blades  were  worn 
down  to  almost  nothing  in  the  middle.  Some  had  been 
actually  worn  in  two,  but  the  ends  were  carefully  saved 
and  stored  away.     As  a  coal-heaver,  the  old  man  had 


158       THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

never  cast  off  a  worn-out  basket,  and  there  were  dozens 
of  the  remains  of  the  old  things,  patched  up  with  canvas 
and  rope-yarns  in  the  store-room.  There  were  at  least 
two  dozen  old  hats,  fur,  cloth,  silk  and  straw,  etc/' 

The  man  who  could  make  such  a  collection  as  this  is  a 
miser,  and  he  is  despised  for  being  such.  He  had  too 
great  a  zeal  for  collecting  and  hoarding,  and  he  allowed 
his  zeal  to  obliterate  the  other  possible  interests  of  life. 
We  all  seem  inclined  to  keep  bits  of  useless  finery  and 
pieces  of  useless  apparatus.  The  desire  is  often  not 
yielded  to,  and  the  objects  are  thrown  away  because  their 
presence  becomes  a  nuisance.  We  all  like  to  collect 
money,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  useful  and  that  others 
are  making  collections  too  merely  tends  to  increase  the 
instinctive  desire  to  collect.  The  octogenarian  continues 
to  collect  money  with  unabated  zeal,  although  he  may  be 
childless  and  the  chief  dread  of  his  life  is  that  his 
despised  relatives  may  secure  his  money  when  he  is  gone. 
He  does  not  desire  that  which  money  will  secure,  but 
the  obtaining  and  holding  the  money  is  sufficient  stimu- 
lus to  him,  even  if  every  acquired  dollar  makes  his 
difficulties  greater  by  adding  new  responsibilities.  No 
miser  is  aware  of  the  fact  that  he  collects  for  the  pleasure 
he  gets  out  of  the  collecting  and  the  keeping.  He  imag- 
ines that  he  collects  these  things  because  of  their  useful- 
ness. He  may  think  that  each  thing  he  collects  will  come 
handy  in  some  emergency ;  but  that  is  not  the  ground  of 
his  collecting,  although  it  may  increase  the  tendency, 
and  also  make  it  seem  reasonable  to  himself.  It  might  be 
insulting  to' a  business  man  to  tell  him  that  he  was  labor- 
ing for  money  merely  because  of  the  pleasure  he  receives 
in  the  gathering  and  keeping  of  it.  Indeed,  such  a  state- 
ment would  ordinarily  be  but  partially  true,  for, 
although  the  proprietary  instinct  may  play  a  part,  it  cer- 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS  159 

tainly  is  not  a  complete  explanation.  All  persons  every- 
where are  tempted  by  a  possibility  of  gain. 

Our  proprietary  instincts  may  be  made  use  of  by  the 
advertiser  in  many  ways.  The  irresponsible  advertiser 
has  been  able  to  play  upon  this  instinct  of  the  public 
by  offering  something  for  nothing,  as  is  so  frequently 
done  in  the  cheaper  forms  of  advertising  media.  The 
remarkable  thing  about  this  is  that  the  public  should 
be  deluded  by  such  a  pretense.  The  desire  to  gain  seems 
to  overcome  the  better  judgment  of  the  more  ignorant 
public  and  they  become  the  victims  of  all  sorts  of  treach- 
ery. The  reputable  advertiser  should  not  disregard  this 
instinct,  and  might  often  make  it  possible  to  minister 
to  it  with  great  profit,  both  to  himself  and  to  the  public, 
which  he  might  thus  interest  in  what  he  has  to  offer. 
The  following  advertisement  of  the  American  Reserve 
Bond  Co.  (No.  2)  is  an  attempt  to  appeal  to  this  instinct. 

Why  will  a  man  endure  hardship  for  days,  endanger 
his  life,  and  incur  great  expense,  merely  for  the  chance 
of  a  shot  at  a  poor  inoffensive  deer?  It  certainly  is  not 
because  of  the  value  of  the  venison  or  of  the  hide.  It  is 
not  uncommon  for  a  sportsman  to  give  away  his  game 
as  soon  as  he  has  killed  it.  What  he  wanted  was  t-he 
pleasure  of  killing  the  game.  Why  will  a  man  wade  in 
streams  from  morning  till  night,  or  hold  a  baited  hook 
for  hours  in  the  burning  sun?  It  certainly  is  not  be- 
cause fish  are  valuable ;  neither  does  he  do  it  because  he 
believes  that  it  is  good  for  his  health.  While  engaged  in 
the  act  he  is  perfectly  indifferent  to  his  health,  and  such 
a  thought  would  be  incongruous  to  the  whole  situation. 
We  like  to  hunt  and  to  fish  because  we  have  inherited 
the  hunting  instinct  from  remote  ancestors.  For  the 
civilized  man  such  an  instinct  is  often  worthless,  but  to 
our  ancestors  it  was  necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
life. 


160       THE   PSYCHOLOOY    OF   ADVERTISING 

The  charm  which  a  gun  or  a  fishing  tackle  has  for 
a  civilized  man  is  a  most  remarkable  thing.  The  an- 
nual sale  of  rifles,  revolvers,  fishing  tackle,  fishing  boats, 


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If  you  have  a  $10.00  "nest  eggr"and  want  to  see  your  money 
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some Surplus,  our  plan  will  interest  you. 
>  This  i3  a  great  clearing  house  for  savings-profits. 
We   have   taught  over  200,000  people  how  to  make  savings ^rtw 
and  yield  la>ge  dlVld^nds. 

..     Already    we   have  distributed  over  three  and  one  halt  millicms  ot 
dollars  to  the  money-savets  of  this  countryl  ' 

The  earning  power  oF  Boney  is  so' much  greater  than  3%  a  year, 
that  a  banker  who  has  the 'use  of  savings  for  that  paltry  sum,  soon 
grows  rich  from  the  profits  mat  pile  up  on  top  of  the  amount  given  you 
iot  your  share. 

He  turns  it  over  and  over,  and  it  grows  with  every  turn; 
—  Because   he   has    inside    knowledge   of    its  earning  power,  and  ho 
•uses  that  knowledge  for'his  own  private  gain. 

<By  our  plan,  you  get  your  lull  share  of  dividends,  5%  guaranteed, 
you  get  all  of  the  principal  and  a  share  of  the  Surplus  earnings  of  the 
company. 

\Va  have  assets  of  over  three  and  a  half  milhons  of  dollars,  with 
the  largest  State  Deposits  of  any  Bond 
Company  in  the  World. 

We  are  guided  by  the  experience  of 
over  fourteen  years  in  the  handling  of 
savings  investments.  Our  business  is 
under  the  direct  coutrol  of  various  stale 
laws  and  subject  to  periodical  official 
examinations. 


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Dept   14  Chamber  of  Commerce; 

Ue  and  Wtuhington  %\».^  Chic«^ 


No.  2. — A  snccessful  appeal  to  the  hoarding  instinct. 


etc.,  is  beyond  anything  which  could  be  attributed  to 
their  practical  need.  The  hunting  instinct  shows  itself 
in  our  fiendish  desire  for  conflict.  The  more  ferocious 
the  animal  and  the  "gamier'^  the  fish,  the  greater  is  our 
delight.  The  conflict  may  be  with  a  man,  and  then 
the  fiercer  the  struggle  the  better  we  like  it.     A  street- 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS  161 

brawl  never  fails  to  attract  a  crowd.  The  prize-fighter 
is  always  accompanied  by  the  admiring  glances  of  the 
populace.  The  accounts  of  atrocious  crimes  are  read  by 
those  who  are  ashamed  to  confess  it. 

The  advertiser  of  guns,  revolvers,  fishing  tackle,  etc., 
meets  with  a  ready  response  from  the  youth  because  he 
appeals  directly  to  his  powerful  instincts.  The  follow- 
ing advertisement  of  Stevens  Rifles  (No.  3)  is  a  good 
illustration  of  an  appeal  to  the  hunting  instinct : 


-A  successful  appeal  to 


The  constructive  instinct  shows  itself  in  a  well-known 
manner  in  the  bee  and  the  beaver.  The  sam«  instinct  is 
common  to  man,  but  the  results  are  not  so  uniform.  We 
all  like  to  construct  things;  if  they  are  already  con- 
structed, then  we  want  to  remodel  or  improve  them. 
There  is  hardly  a  man  who  at  least  once  has  not  been 
.conscious  of  a  strong  desire  to  build  a  house.  If  he 
purchases  one  already  constructed,  then  he  is  not  content 
till  he  has  remodeled  it  in  some  way.  Indeed,  if  he  has 
built  it  himself  he  may  make  improvements  upon  it  an- 
nually. If  it  is  not  so  that  he  can  make  more  changes 
the  home  loses  interest,  and  is  likely  to  be  abandoned. 
As  soon  as  the  possibility  of  improving  a  liome  has  passed 


162       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

it  seems  that  both  the  host  and  hostess  seek  excuses  for 
going  north  or  south  or  traveling  abroad. 

In  our  urban  civilization  the  men  are  deprived  of 
one  of  the  great  pleasures  of  life.  We  are  shut  in  as 
children,  and  are  not  allowed  to  "make  a  muss''  by  our 
attempts  at  construction,  and  in  our  maturity  the  in- 


No.  4. — A  successful  appeal  to  the 
constructing  instinct. 


stinct  is  held  in  check  by  lack  of  exercise.  If  we  had 
some  opportunity  to  make  things  with  our  hands  we 
should  secure  the  best  possible  form  of  recreation  and 
diversion  from  the  anxieties  of  business  life.  The  women 
have  all  sorts  of  fancy-work  with  which  they  may  amuse 
themselves.  Manual-training  and  domestic  science  are 
offering  an  opportunity  to  school -children  to  use  their 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS  163 

hands  and  give  expression  to  this  instinctive  desire  to 
construct  things. 

The  advertiser  can  appeal  in  many  ways  to  this  in- 
stinct, and  is  sure  to  find  ready  attention  and  a  willing- 
ness to  pay  for  the  opportunity  to  exercise  this  much- 
neglected  instinct.  The  preceding  advertisement  of 
Golden  Fleece  yarn  is  such  that  it  makes  a  woman's 
fingers  tingle  with  a  desire  to  knit. 

One  of  the  most  striking  instincts  in  the  entire  animal 
kingdom  is  that  of  maternal  love.  The  mother  of  one 
of  the  higher  animals  or  of  the  human  infant  is  willing 
to  sacrifice  all  for  her  infant.  The  description  which  a 
German  by  the  name  of  Schneider  wrote  of  this  instinct 
is  clearly  German,  but  is  an  excellent  description  of  the 
facts : 

^'As  soon  as  a  wife  becomes  a  mother  her  whole 
thought  and  feeling,  her  whole  being,  is  altered.  Until 
then  she  had  only  thought  of  her  own  well-being,  of  the 
satisfaction  of  her  vanity;  the  whole  world  appeared 
made  only  for  her;  everything  that  went  on  about  her 
was  only  noticed  so  far  as  it  had  personal  reference  to 
her ;  she  asked  of  every  one  that  he  should  appear  inter- 
ested in  her,  pay  her  the  requisite  attention,  and  as  far 
as  possible  fulfil  her  wishes.  Now,  however,  the  center 
of  the  world  is  no  longer  herself,  but  her  child.  She 
does  not  think  of  her  own  hunger;  she  must  first  be 
sure  that  the  child  is  fed.  It  is  nothing  to  her  that  she 
herself  is  tired  and  needs  rest,  so  long  as  she  sees  that 
the  child's  sleep  is  not  disturbed ;  the  moment  it  stirs  she 
awakes,  though  far  stronger  noises  fail  to  arouse  her 
now.  She  has,  in  one  word,  transformed  her  entire 
egotism  to  the  child,  and  lives  only  in  it.  Thus,  at  least, 
it  is  in  all  unspoiled,  naturally  bred  mothers,  and  thus 
it  is  with  all  the  higher  animal  mothers. 


164       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

"She  does  not  herself  know  why  she  is  so  happy,  and 
why  the  look  of  the  child  and  the  care  of  it  are  so  agree- 
able, any  more  than  the  young  man  can  give  an  account 
of  why  he  loves  the  maiden,  and  is  so  happy  when  she 
is  near.  Few  mothers,  in  caring  for  their  children, 
think  of  the  proper  purpose  of  maternal  love  for  the 
preservation  of  the  species.  Such  a  thought  may  arise 
in  the  father's  mind ;  seldom  in  that  of  the  mother.  The 
latter  feels  only  that  it  is  an  everlasting  delight  to  hold 
the  being  which  she  has  brought  forth  protectingly  in 
her  arms,  to  dress  it,  to  wash  it,  to  rock  it  to  sleep, 
or  to  still  its  hunger."  (Condensed  from  James's  "Psy- 
chology.") 

Anything  that  will  administer  to  the  needs  of  the  child 
is  a  necessity  in  the  eyes  of  the  mother.  The  matter  of 
expense  has  to  be  considered  by  many  mothers,  but  as 
men  think  lightly  of  expense  when  satisfying  their  hunt- 
ing instincts,  so  the  mothers  look  upon  expense  as  of 
secondary  importance  when  supplying  the  needs  of  their 
children.  An  article  which  in  any  way  administers  to 
the  appearance  or  comfort  of  children  needs  but  to  be 
brought  to  the  attention  of  mothers  and  it  is  sure  to  be 
desired  by  them  with  a  desire  which  is  much  more  than 
a  passing  fancy,  for  it  is  enforced  by  the  maternal 
instinct  as  inherited  from  countless  generations.  Adver- 
tisers are  very  successful  in  appealing  to  this  instinct. 
The  advertisement  of  Cream  of  Wheat  (No.  5)  is  but 
one  of  many  advertisements  which  thus  appeal  most 
forcibly  to  all  mothers. 

No  one  chooses  solitude  for  a  long  period  of  time. 
We  prefer  the  best  of  companionship,  but  in  the  absence 
of  the  best  we  accept  the  best  available.  Robinson 
Crusoe  took  great  comfort  in  the  companionship  of  his 
man  Friday.     Solitary  confinement  is  a  severer  form 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS 


165 


of  punishment  than  any  other  employed  by  civilized 
nations.  We  are  gregarious  and  want  to  be  able  to 
see  other  human  beings.  Not  only  do  we  want  to  see 
others,  but  we  want  to  be  seen  and  noticed  by  them. 


No.  5. — A  successful  attempt  to  appeal  to  the  parental 
instinct. 

Why  should  I  care  for  myself  as  I  appear  in  the  minds 
of  other  people?  It  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  explain 
the  origin  of  such  a  regard  for  the  opinion  of  others,  but 
it  would  hardly  have  been  possible  for  the  race  to  have 
developed  without  such  a  preference.     Indeed,  if  an  in- 


166       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

dividual  should  become  wholly  oblivious  to  the  opinion 
of  others,  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  would  be  able  to 
survive  for  any  considerable  period  of  time. 

The  young  man  seems  compelled  to  attempt  to  be  at 
his  best  before  the  young  lady,  but  he  does  not  know 
why.  The  young  boy  always  tries  to  "show  off"  in  the 
presence  of  young  girls.  It  is  often  ridiculous  that  he 
should  do  so,  and  he  does  not  know  why  he  is  doing  it. 
When  he  comes  into  the  presence  of  the  young  girl  he 
seems  compelled  to  undertake  something  bizarre  which 
is  sure  to  attract  her  attention.  We  are  all  afflicted 
as  the  young  man  and  the  boy.  We  consult  not  only 
our  preference  but  also  the  opinion  of  others  in  purchas- 
ing our  clothes  and  our  homes,  and  in  choosing  our 
friends  and  our  professions.  We  seem  compelled  to 
strive  for  those  things  which  will  make  us  rise  in  the 
estimation  of  others,  and  in  purchasing  and  choosing  we 
select  those  things  which  are  approved  by  those  whose 
esteem  we  most  covet.  If  a  particular  style  of  clothing 
is  preferred  by  the  class  of  society  whose  esteem  we 
court,  that  is  a  great  argument  in  favor  of  such  goods. 
It  is  possible  for  the  advertiser  of  all  classes  of  clothing 
to  take  advantage  of  this  characteristic  of  human  nature 
and  to  present  his  garments  as  if  they  were  being  worn 
by  this  preferred  set.  Indeed,  at  the  present  time, 
there  are  many  classes  of  goods  which  are  being  pre- 
sented as  the  preferred  of  the  "veritable  swells.''  When, 
on  the  contrary,  an  advertiser  represents  his  goods  as 
that  preferred  by  a  despised  class  of  individuals,  the 
effect  produced  is  distinctly  harmful. 

The  reproduced  advertisement  of  Gage  Millinery  ( No. 
6)  makes  us  believe  that  by  selecting  a  Gage  hat  we 
should  be  brought,  in  the  eyes  of  our  acquaintances,  into 
the  class  of  persons  here  represented. 


No.  6. — T  feel  that  by  buying  a  Gage  hat  I  should  be  brought  into 
the  social  class  of  such  ladies  as  the  one  here  shown. 


168       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

The  advertisements  of  Regal  Shoes  (No.  7)  and  of 
White  Star  Coffee  (No.  8)  make  us  avoid  them,  for  we 
do  not  want  to  be  considered  as  in  the  class  with  frogs 
and  peasants.  The  coffee  and  shoes  may  be  all  right, 
but  if,  by  using  them,  I  am  to  be  thought  less  of  by  my 
acquaintances,  I  will  have  none  of  them. 


r^-IT* 


:gal 

'    F'-oi-JA    Oi-\e    Storo    to 


rC«RRA-'tldC    HAPPY  If!  C0UL6  OKI*    Gtf  aRit:/! 


No.  7. — I  refuse  to  admire  the  Regal 
shoe,  for  it  will  bring  me  into  the 
class  with  this  fellQW. 


Our  limbs  would  be  useless  unless  with  them  we  in- 
herited a  desire  to  exercise  them.  We  do  not  exercise 
our  limbs  in  order  that  we  may  develop  them ;  but,  never- 
theless, the  chief  value  of  such  exercise  may  be  the  devel- 
opment of  the  limbs.  With  every"  organ  we  inherit  a 
desire  to  exercise  it  in  a  way  which  makes  for  its 
development.  The  child^s  mind  is  but  a  potential  affair. 
It  must  be  exercised  in  order  that  it  may  develop.  If 
the  child  exercised  only  when  it  realized  that  such  exer- 
cise was  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  body,  it  is 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS 


169 


quite  certain  that  there  would  never  be  a  fully  developed 
adult  again. 

Along  with  our  bodies  we  have  inherited  a  psychical 
nature  with  all  its  diversified  possibilities.  The  psy- 
chical nature  is,  however,  but  little  more  than  a  possi- 
bility which  needs  vigorous  exercise  for  its  realization. 

We  have  a  moral  nature,  which,  in  the  beginning,  is 
in  the  crudest  possible  form,  but  we  have  an  inherited 
liking  for  the  consideration  of  moral  questions.  This 
consideration  may  be  of  the  actions  of  the  hero  in  a  story, 
of  the  nation's  leaders,  of  a  seller  of  merchandise,  or  of 


No.  8. — A  poor  advertisement.  What 
would  my  acquaintances  think  of  me 
if  I  preferred  the  same  brand  of  coffee 
as   that  which   delights   the  frogs? 


a  personal  friend.  Such  consideration  of  actions  of 
others  is  most  beneficial  in  the  development  of  the  moral 
sense,  and  when  moral  questions  are  presented  in  a  true 
light,  they  are  intensely  interesting  to  all  classes  of 
persons.  . 

Socrates  believed  that  all  persons  would  prefer  the 
right  whenever  they  saw  it,  and  that  all  evil  actions  were 
from  ignorance.  Such  a  view  is  evidently  an  exaggera- 
tion, but  we  certainly  do  prefer  what  we  regard  to  be 
the  right,  and  reject  what  we  regard  to  be  the  wrong. 


170       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

This  is  especially  true  in  regard  to  the  actions  of  others. 
We  are  disgusted  and  repulsed  by  what  we  regard  as 
wrong  in  others.  If  an  advertiser's  argument,  illustra- 
tion, and  condition  of  purchase  are  such  that  they  offend 
the  moral  sense  of  the  reader,  the  advertisement  is  of 
little  or  no  value.  It  may  be  difficult  to  appeal  espe- 
cially to  the  moral  judgment  of  the  possible  customer  in 
presenting  most  goods,  but  any  offense  to  such  a  moral 
judgment  must  be  scrupulously  avoided.  In  the  adver- 
tisements of  books,  periodicals,  and  schools,  the  moral 
judgment  can  safely  be  counted  on.  Whether  the  re- 
ligious nature  be  developed  from  the  moral  or  not,  it 
certainly  is  true  that  the  two  are  very  closely  connected, 
and  that  they  must  both  be  regarded  with  care  by  the 
advertiser,  whether  they  be  appealed  to  directly  by  the 
advertisement  or  not.  The  avidity  with  which  we  seek 
things  which  appeal  to  our  religious  nature  is  illustrated 
by  a  circumstance  related  in  the  September,  1904,  issue 
of  the  Atlantic  Monthly.  A  book  was  offered  to  the  pub- 
lic with  the  title,  "The  Wonders  of  Nature,"  but  the  sales 
were  disappointing.  The  title  was  changed  to  "The 
Wonders  of  Nature,  the  Architecture  of  God,"  and  the 
sales  were  immediately  increased  and  a  second  edition 
was  necessary. 

We  have  even  as  children  an  embryonic,  esthetic  na- 
ture. Things  beautiful  have  a  fascinating  effect  upon 
the  unperverted  individual.  We  need  but  to  have 
objects  of  beauty  brought  to  our  attention  and  we  desire 
them  without  being  taught  their  desirability. 

Furthermore,  the  beautiful  affects  us  without  our 
knowledge  of  the  fact.  We  stop  and  look  at  a  beautiful 
advertisement,  but  may  not  be  aware  that  it  is  the 
beauty  that  attracts  us  at  all.  The  best  works  of  art 
are  such  that  the  attention  is  drawn  wholly  to  what 


HUMAN  INSTINCTS  171 

is  represented,  and  not  to  the  manner  of  the  representa- 
tion. *The  advertisement  which  is  most  artistic  may 
be  one  which  never  affects  the  public  as  being  artistic 
at  all,  but  it  is  the  one  which  will  be  most  effective  in 
impressing  the  possible  customer.  One  reason  why  so 
much  attention  is  given  to  the  advertising  pages  of  our 
magazines  is  that  they  are  so  artistic. 

We  have  an  intellectual  nature,  but  in  the  case  of  the 
child  the  intellect  is  little  more  than  a  spark  which,  how- 
ever, is  sufficient  to  indicate  the  presence  of  that  which 
may  be  'developed  into  a  great  light.  The  child  is 
prompted  by  curiosity  to  examine  everything  that  comes 
into  its  environment.  It  tears  its  toys  to  pieces  that  it 
may  learn  of  their  construction.  At  a  later  age  the 
youth  takes  delight  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  inde- 
pendent of  the  utility  of  such  knowledge.  The  curiosity 
of  the  human  race  is  the  salvation  of  its  intellect,  and  at 
the  same  time  makes  a  convenient  point  of  attack  for 
the  advertiser.  The  public  wants  to  know  what  is  offered 
for  sale.  It  wants  to  hear  the  story  which  the  advertiser 
has  to  tell.  There  are  other  stories  to  hear,  and  the 
advertiser  must  not  have  the  most  uninteresting  one  if 
he  expects  to  take  advantage  of  this  instinctive  desire 
of  the  individual  to  become  acquainted  with  all  novel 
objects  and  to  learn  all  he  can  concerning  new  aspects 
of  familiar  ones. 

Occasionally  this  characteristic  of  curiosity  may  be 
made  use  of  by  the  advertiser  in  what  might  seem  to  be 
an  absurd  manner,  and  yet  the  results  be  good.  As 
an  illustration,  observe  the  reproduced  advertisement  of 
"What  did  the  woggle  bug  say?''  (No.  9).  This  adver- 
tisement seems  to  be  extremely  absurd,  and  yet,  in  some 
way,  it  has  been  able  to  arouse  the  curiosity  of  many 
readers,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  it  has  been  a  success- 
ful advertisement. 


172       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    ADVERTISING 

We  have  seen  above  that  we  have  instinctive  responses 
to  act  for  the  preservation  and  furtherance  of  (1)  our 
bodies,  clothes,  homes,  personal  property,  and  family 
(also  the  hunting  and  constructing  instincts  which  are 
more  complex  than  others  of  this  class)  ;  (2)  ourselves 
as  we  exist  in  the  minds  of  others ;  (3)  our  mental  facul- 
ties. We  have  seen  that  to  secure  action  along  these 
lines  it  is  not  necessarv  to  show  the  value  of  such  action 


No.   9. — An   advertising   freak 
designed  to  arouse  curiosity. 


or  the  necessity  of  it,  but  merely  to  present  the  proper 
stimulus,  and  the  action  is  forthcoming  immediately. 
The  advertiser  should  study  human  nature  to  discover 
these  hidden  springs  of  action.  He  desires  to  produce 
the  maximum  of  action  along  a  certain  line  with  the 
minimum  of  effort  and  expense  to  himself.  If  he  can 
find  a  method  whereby  his  efforts  are  seconded  by  some 
of  the  most  powerful  of  the  human  instincts,  his  task  will 
be  simplified  to  the  extreme.  The  discovery  of  such  a 
method  is  a  task  for  the  leaders  of  the  profession  of 
advertising. 


SUGGESTION  173 

XIV 
SUGGESTION 

The  mental  process  known  as  '^Suggestion"  is  in  bad 
repute  because,  in  the  popular  mind,  it  has  too  often 
been  associated  on  the  one  hand  with  hypnotism  and  on 
the  other  with  indelicacy  and  vulgarity.  Hypnotism  in 
the  hands  of  the  scientist  or  of  the  fakir  is  well  known 
to  be  a  form  of  suggestion.  A  story  which  does  not 
specifically  depart  from  that  which  conforms  to  the 
standards  of  propriety  but  which  is  so  constructed  that 
it  leads  the  hearers  to  conceptions  that  are  "off  color'' 
is  said  to  be  suggestive.  In  this  way  it  has  come  to  pass 
that  the  whole  subject  of  suggestion  has  been  passed  by 
with  less  consideration  than  is  due  it. 

There  is  no  uniformity  in  the  meanings  that  are  at- 
tached to  the  term  suggestion  even  among  the  most  care- 
ful writers.  If  I  were  sitting  in  my  office  and  consider- 
ing the  advisability  of  beginning  a  certain  enterprise,  I 
might  say  that  one  idea  "suggested"  a  second  and  this 
second  a  third,  etc.  A  scientific  definition  would  not 
allow  this  use  of  the  term  but  would  substitute  the  ex- 
pression "called  up"  for  "suggested."  Thus  I  should 
say  that  one  idea  "called  up"  the  second,  etc.  Sugges- 
tion must  he  brought  about  by  a  second  person  or  an 
object.  In  my  musings  and  deliberations  I  should  not 
say  that  one  idea  suggested  another,  but  if  the  same  idea 
were  called  forth  at  the  instigation  of  a  second  person 
or  upon  the  presentation  of  an  object,  I  should  then  call 
it  suggestion — if  it  met  the  second  essential  condition  of 
suggestion.    This  second  condition  is  that  the  resulting 


174       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

conception^  conclusion^  or  action  must  follow  with  less 
than  the  normal  amount  of  deliberation.  Suggestion  is 
thus  a  relative  term,  and  in  many  instances  it  might  be 
difficult  to  say  whether  or  not  a  particular  act  was  sug- 
gestion. If  the  act  followed  a  normal  amount  of  con- 
sideration after  a  normal  time  for  deliberation  it  would 
not  be  suggestion,  while  if  the  same  act  followed  too 
abruptly  or  with  too  little  consideration  it  might  be  a 
true  case  of  suggestion. 

Every  normal  individual  is  subject  to  the  influence  of 
suggestion.  Every  idea  of  which  we  think  is  all  too 
liable  to  be  held  for  truth,  and  every  thought  of  an  action 
which  enters  our  minds  is  likely  to  result  in  such  action. 
I  do  not  think  first  of  walking  and  then  make  up  my 
mind  to  walk.  The  very  thought  of  walking  will  inevi- 
tably lead  to  the  act  unless  I  stop  the  process  by  the 
thought  of  standing  still.  If  I  think  of  an  object  to  the 
east  of  me  my  whole  body  sways  slightly  in  that  direc- 
tion. Such  action  is  so  slight  that  we  ordinarily  do  not 
discover  it  without  the  aid  of  accurate  recording  instru- 
ments. Almost  all  so-called  mind-reading  exhibitions 
are  nothing  but  demonstrations  of  the  fact  that  every 
thought  which  we  think  expresses  itself  in  some  out- 
ward action.  Thought  is  dynamic  in  its  very  nature  and 
every  idea  of  an  action  tends  to  produce  that  action. 

The  most  perfect  working  of  suggestion  is  to  be  seen 
under  hypnosis  and  in  crowds.  In  hypnosis  the  subject 
holds  every  idea  presented  as  true,  and  every  idea  sug:: 
gested  is  acted  out  with  no  hesitation  whatever.  Here 
the  mind  is  so  narrowed  by  the  artificial  sleep  that  no 
contradictory  or  inhibiting  idea  arises,  and  hence  no 
idea  can  seem  absurd  and  no  action  seems  out  of  place. 
There  is  no  possible  criticism  or  deliberation  and  so  we 
have  the  extreme  case  of  susceptibility  to  suggestion. 


SUGGESTION  175 

The  effect  of  a  crowd  upon  an  individual  approaches 
that  of  the  hypnotizer.  The  individual  is  affected  by 
every  member  of  the  crowd  and  the  influence  becomes 
so  overpowering  that  it  can  hardly  be  resisted.  If  the 
crowd  is  a  ^'lynching  party"  the  whole  atmosphere  is 
one  of  revenge,  and  everywhere  is  suggested  the  idea 
of  ^^lynch  the  culprit."  This  idea  is  presented  on  all 
sides.  It  can  be  read  from  the  faces  and  actions  of  the 
individuals  and  is  heard  in  their  cries.  No  other  idea 
has  a  chance  to  arise  in  consciousness  and  hence  this  one 
idea,  being  dynamic,  leads  to  its  natural  consequences. 

It  was  once  supposed  that  suggestion  was  something 
abnormal  and  that  reason  was  the  common  attribute  of 
men.  To-day  we  are  finding  that  suggestion  is  of  uni- 
versal application  to  all  persons,  while  reason  is  a 
process  which  is  exceptional,  even  among  the  wisest.  We 
reason  rarely,  but  act  under  suggestion  constantly. 

There  was  a  great  agitation  some  years  ago  among 
advertisers  for  "reason  why"  copy.  This  agitation  has 
had  some  value,  but  it  is  easily  overemphasized.  Occa- 
sionally customers  are  persuaded  and  convinced,  but 
more  frequently  they  make  their  purchases  because  the 
act  is  suggested  at  the  psychological  moment.  Suggestion 
and  persuasion  are  not  antagonistic ;  both  should  be  kept 
in  mind.  However,  in  advertising,  suggestion  should 
not  be  subordinated  to  persuasion  l)ut  should  be  sup- 
plemented by  it.  The  actual  effect  of  modern  advertis- 
ing is  not  so  much  to  convince  as  to  suggest.  The  individ- 
ual swallowed  up  by  a  crowd  is  not  aware  of  the  fact 
that  he  is  not  exercising  a  normal  amount  of  delibera- 
tion. His  actions  appear  to  him  to  be  the  result  of 
reason,  although  the  idea,  as  presented,  is  not  criticised 
at  all  and  no  contradictory  or  inhibiting  idea  has  any 
possibility  of  arising  in  his  mind.    In  the  same  way  we 


176       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

think  that  we  are  performing  a  deliberate  act  when  we 
purchase  an  advertised  commodity,  while  in  fact  we  may 
never  have  deliberated  upon  the  subject  at  all.  The  idea 
is  suggested  by  the  advertisement,  and  the  impulsiveness 
of  human  nature  enforces  the  suggested  idea,  hence  the 
desired  result  follows  in  a  way  unknown  to  the  pur- 
chaser. 

Some  time  ago  a  tailor  in  Chicago  was  conducting  a 
vigorous  advertising  campaign.  I  did  not  suppose  that 
his  advertising  was  having  any  influence  upon  me. 
Some  months  after  the  advertising  had  begun  I  went 
into  the  tailor's  shop  and  ordered  a  suit.  While  in  the 
shop  I  happened  to  fall  into  conversation  with  the  pro- 
prietor and  he  asked  me  if  a  friend  had  recommended 
him  to  me.  I  replied  that  such  was  the  case.  Thereupon 
I  tried  to  recall  who  the  friend  was  and  finally  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  this  shop  had  never  been  recom- 
mended to  me  at  all.  I  had  seen  his  advertisements  for 
months  and  from  them  had  formed  an  idea  of  the  shop. 
Later,  I  forgot  where  I  had  received  my  information  and 
assumed  that  I  had  received  it  from  a  friend  who  pat- 
ronized the  shop.  I  discovered  that  all  I  knew  of  the 
shop  I  had  learned  from  advertisements  and  I  doubt 
very  much  whether  I  ever  read  any  of  the  advertisements 
further  than  the  display  type.  Doubtless  many  other 
customers  would  have  given  the  same  reply  even  though, 
as  in  my  case,  no  friend  had  spoken  to  them  concerning 
the  shop. 

Ideas  which  have  the  greatest  suggestive  power  are 
those  presented  to  us  by  the  actions  of  other  persons. 
The  second  most  effective  class  is  probably  the  ideas 
suggested  by  the  words  of  our  companions.  Advertise- 
ments that  are  seen  frequently  are  difficult  to  distinguish 
in  their  force  from  ideas  which  are  secured  from  the 


SUGGESTION  177 

words  of  our  friends.  Advertising  thus  becomes  a  great 
social  illusion.  We  attribute  to  our  social  environment 
that  which  in  reality  has  been  secured  from  the  adver- 
tisements which  we  have  seen  so  often  that  we  forget 
the  source  of  the  information.  Street  railway  advertis- 
ing is  especially  effective  at  this  point  because  the  sug- 
gestion is  presented  so  frequently  that  we  soon  forget 
the  source  of  the  suggestions  and  end  by  attributing  it 
to  the  advice  of  friends. 

In  advertising  some  commodities  argumentation  is  of 
more  importance  than  suggestion,  and  for  such  things 
booklets  and  other  similar  forms  of  advertising  are  the 
most  effective.  Such  commodities  are,  however,  the  ex- 
ception and  not  the  rule.  In  the  most  successful  adver- 
tising argumentation  and  forms  of  reasoning  are  not 
disregarded,  but  the  emphasis  is  put  upon  suggestion. 
Inasmuch  as  more  of  our  actions  are  induced  by  sugges- 
tion than  by  argumentation,  advertising  conforms,  in 
this  particular,  to  the  psychological  situation.  It  puts 
the  emphasis  where  the  most  can  be  accomplished  and 
subordinates  those  mental  processes  which  hold  a  second 
place  in  determining  our  actions. 

As  stated  above,  those  suggestions  are  the  most  power- 
ful which  we  receive  from  the  actions  and  words  of  other 
persons.  The  successful  advertiser  seems  to  have  worked 
upon  this  hypothesis  in  constructing  many  advertise- 
ments. He  has  also  taken  advantage  of  the  fact  that  we 
soon  forget  the  person  who  originally  suggested  the  idea 
and  become  subject  to  illusions  upon  the  matter.  Thus, 
in  the  reproduced  advertisements  of  Jap-a-lac  (No.  1), 
as  I  see  this  young  lady  using  Jap-a-lac  the  suggestion 
to  do  the  same  thing  is  overpowering.  Many  a  woman 
who  has  looked  at  these  pictures  has  been  immediately 
overcome  by  a  desire  to  do  the  same  thing- and  has  put 


178       THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 


3-. 


^     ""^  £■?   --= 

Kc    *  i^-^  l-'-'i:  'JU 


C^ 


< 


'^  §  2 1 '  ■iii 

<  4<  50- 


No.   1. — The  actions  of   this  young  lady   are  compelling  in  their 
suggestive  power. 


SUGGESTION  179 

her  desire  into  execution.  If  I  had  seen  these  and  simi- 
lar cards  for  a  few  months,  even  though  I  had  never 
seen  any  one  actually  using  the  paint,  I  should  assume 
that  "every  one  is  using  Jap-a-lac."  The  suggestion 
would  thereupon  be  in  an  extreme  form  and  be  liable  to 
cause  me  to  imitate  what  I  assumed  every  one  else  was 
doing.  As  a  matter  of  fact  I  was  affected  in  just  this 
manner.  When  occasion  arose  to  purchase  some  paint 
for  household  use  I  called  for  Jap-a-lac  under  the  as- 
sumption that  I  had  seen  it  used  frequently.  The  can 
looked  familiar,  and  it  seemed  to  me  that  I  was  running 
no  risks,  for  Jap-a-lac  had  been  a  household  commodity 
for  years.  Soon  after  the  purchase  I  began  to  write  this 
chapter  and  I  am  unable  to  recall  any  instance  of  having 
seen  Jap-a-lac  in  use.  I  had  seen  pictures  of  the  Jap-a- 
lac  paint  can  and  had  seen  pictures  of  persons  using  the 
paint,  but  I  know  of  no  other  source  of  information  con- 
cerning this  paint,  although  at  the  time  of  the  purchase 
of  the  paint  my  knowledge  of  it  seemed  to  me  perfectly 

«Rub  your  finger 
on  white  lead  paint  Several  mdnths  qU. 
It  comes  off— lii<e  chalk.    It  is  CrumbllVlg 
tfway. 
LUCAS  TINTED  GLOSS  PAINT    wonT 
chalk  — won't    crumble.      It    develops    s 
hard  glossy  surfafe. 
Moisture  or  heat   won't  affect   It      It   lasts  yeai» 
longer  than  other  paint.    Be  sure  you  get  it. 

No.  2. — A  suggestion  to  rub  your  finger. 

adequate.  Apparently  I  had  never  heard  an  argument 
in  favor  of  the  paint  but  had  acted  upon  mere  sugges- 
tion. Women  are,  in  general,  more  susceptible  to  sugges- 
tion than  men,  and  I  feel  sure  that  many  women  are  con- 
vinced of  the  adequacy  of  this  paint  by  these  same  adver- 
tisements, reproduced  above,  even  though  nothing  more 
than  the  display  and  the  picture  is  noticed. 


180       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

It  seems  that  no  form  of  action  can  be  suggested  by  an 
advertisement  that  does  not  successfully  challenge  the 
reader  to  do  what  is  proposed.  The  suggested  idea 
haunts  one,  and  even  though  the  action  may  be  absurd, 
it  is  difficult  to  resist.    The  four  following  reproduced 


SOLVE  THIS 


and  well  oencl  you  one  of  our 
Superior   Pound   CaKes 


Answer  to  last  month's 


t 


puzzk-'t^rtainlyndn"  |     j  Wednesday  Special  Safe 


Don't  miss  our 


WESTERFELIKS 


No.  3. — A  suggestion  to  solve  this. 


advertisements  depend  upon  suggestion  and  are  said  to 
be  extremely  successful.  Many  persons  doubtless  feel 
the  suggestion  to  be  irresistible  to  rub  the  end  of  the  first 
finger  when  looking  at  this  advertisement  of  Lucas 


A    SISTERSVILLE    GIRL 


GUESS    WHO? 

To  the  first  Successful  Gucsscr  we  wl 
$ive  One  Dozen  of  our  $5.00  Piioto& 


Eastman    Kodaks   and 
Everything  for  Uie  Photo^apher. 

KERR'5  STUDIOS 

SUteriville,  New  Martliuville  and  SmittanclA. 

No.  4. — The  action  suggested  by  this  adver- 
tisement makes  it  effective. 


Tinted  Gloss  Paint.  What  could  be  more  absurd  than- 
Westerf eld's  advertisement?  The  fact  that  this  adver- 
tisement was  highly  successful  is  sufficient  justification 
for  its  use.  Kerr's  studio  was  flooded  with  answers  to 
the  suggestion  of  "Guess  who?"  The  Yucatan  sign 
language  does  not  affect  me,  but  I  cannot  look  at  the 
beautiful   girl  saying  "Yu"-"ca"-"tan"  without  a  pro- 


SUGGESTION 


181 


Yu- 


"ca- 


*  tan/ 


YUGMNgdmPIEASES 


No.   5. 


-The  movements  of  her  lips  literally  force  me  to  repeat  the  word 

'*Yu-ca-tan." 


182       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

nounced  tendency  to  imitate  her.  The  suggestions  in 
these  four  advertisements  lead  the  readers  to  desire  to 
act  in  the  ways  suggested,  and  that  of  necessity  leads  to 
an  interest  in  the  goods  advertised. 

As  stated  above,  the  words  of  our  friends  have  strong 
suggestive  power.  We  are  not  cold,  logical  machines, 
who  take  data  in  and  then,  by  a  logical  process,  come  to 
a  reasonable  conclusion.  On  the  contrary,  we  are  so 
highly  susceptible  to  suggestion  that  the  words  of  our 
companions  are  ordinarily  held  for  true  and  the  actions 
proposed  by  them  are  hastily  carried  out.  The  sugges- 
tiveness  of  the  words  of  companions  is  a  force  available 
to  the  advertiser.     He  places  before  the  public  a  state- 


.Arrow 

COLL  A ';"'■: 

PONT  SHP.iiMK 


-J 


No.    6. — The   washerwoman    seems    lu    r«tom- 
mend  Arrow  collars. 


ment  and  then,  to  give  greater  suggestive  power,  he 
shows  the  likeness  of  a  person  whose  face  indicates  the 
possession  of  a  judgment  we  should  be  willing  to  take. 
The  advertiser  does  not  state  that  the  words  are  those  of 
the  person  depicted,  but  this  relationship  seems  to  be* 
suggested  and  it  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  ad- 
vertisement. Thus  in  the  reproduced  advertisement  of 
Postum  Food  Coffee  the  picture  of  the  venerable  doctor 
becomes  associated  in  our  minds  with  the  statement, 
"If  coffee  don't  agree,  use  Postum  Food  Coffee."  Later 
these  words  seem  to  have  issued  from  a  responsible 


SUGGESTION 


183 


person  and  come  to  have  undue  weight  with  us  all. 
Likewise  in  the  reproduced  advertisement  of  Arrow 
collars  the  genial  washerwoman  seems  to  assure  us  that 
"  Arrow  Collars  don't  shrink  in  the  wash."  In  the  case 
of  the  Calox  advertisement  I  am  convinced  when  this 


i^^mm 


Vhe  "OXYGEN" 

Tooth  P^osvder 

1  herncw- 

scif'n 

tiftc 

'lentifricc 

that 

V.  ill. 

»^hit^,'J^    you''   1 

.  th. 

ItJ^.    'yXYGK^ 

S    IT 

No.    7. — The   p^jrtr^at     : 

power  of  this  advertisement. 


beautiful  girl  points  lier  finger  at  me  and  seems  to  say, 
"  Yes,  you  ought  to  use  Calox.''  As  I  happen  to  need 
more  tooth  powder  just  now,  I  don't  wait  for  further 
evidence  but  accept  uncritically  the  words  which  she  is 


HAND  SAPOLIO 

by  ^a^  method  of  its  own  cleans  the 
pores,  aids  the  natural  changes  of  the 
skin,  and  imparts  new  vigor  and  life. 
C, Don't  argue,  Don't  infer.  Try  it! 
CIt's  a  lightning  change  from  office 
to  parlor  with  Hand  Sapolio. 
SHOULD  BE  ON  EVERY  WASHSTAND 


No.   8. — A  good  advertisement  in  which   sug- 
gestion is  subordinated  to  argumentation. 

represented  as  using.  When  we  stop  to  think  of  it,  it 
is  absurd  to  place  credence  in  these  words  of  the  ad- 
vertiser simply  because  of  the  presence  of  an  appropriate 
picture,  but  the  absurdity  of  the  situation  does  not  de- 
tract from  the  practical  value  of  such  forms  of  sug- 
gestion. 


nvat/s  tlie 
(  /iff  AccebtabL 


«# 


^ijn^Jhsss* 


y^OU  have  been  entertained  by  a  gracious 
hostess  —  a  little  dinner  party  perhaps  to 
which  you  have  been  invited  by  a  business  friend. 
A  gift  of  flowers  next  day  will  express  the  appre- 
ciation you  feel.  The  girl  you  danced  with,  who 
was  good  to  you  in  finding  other  partners — a 
gift  of  flowers  next  day  is  the  tribute  you  owe. 

For  every  occasion  when  some  thoughtful  atten- 
tion on  your  part  is  hard  to  express  in  words  — 
"  Say  it  with  Flowers,"  the  gift  acceptable. 

Your  local  flonst,  withtn  a  few  hours,  can 
deliver  fresh  f  overs  in  any  city  or  town 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada  through 
the  Florists'  Telegraph  Delivery  Service. 

The  florist  displaying  the  sign  "  Say  it  with 
Flowers  "  is  a  member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Florists,  which  enables  liim  to  serve  you  better 
when  you  buy  flowers. 


QOhose^Birthaau 
comes  in 


No.  9. 


'Say  it  with  Flowers"  is  one  of  the  cleverest  sug- 
gestions in  current  advertising. 


SUGGESTION  185 

The  reproduced  advertisement  of  the  Society  of  Ameri- 
can Florists  (No.  9)  is  one  in  which  suggestion  is  used 
successfully.  The  picture  tends  to  beget  imitation. 
"  Say  it  with  Flowers  "  is  one  of  the  cleverest  phrases 
in  current  advertising.  The  reminder  of  occasions  de- 
manding a  gift  of  flowers  becomes  an  irresistible  sug- 
gestion. 

Many  forms  of  suggestion,  in  addition  to  those  pre- 
sented above,  are  available  to^the  advertiser.  There*  is 
also  no  necessary  divorce  between  suggestion  and  the 
presentation  of  arguments.  Indeed,  the  application  of 
the  two  in  the  same  advertisement  often  increases  the 
value  of  each.  Thus  in  the  reproduced  advertisement 
of  Hand  Sapolio  (No.  8)  the  direct  suggestion, 
"  Hand  Sapolio  should  be  on  every  washstand,"  is 
strengthened  by  the  "  reasons  why,''  and  the  reasons  why 
are  strengthened  by  this  suggestion. 

These  reproduced  advertisements  are  presented  as 
mere  illustrations  of  a  few  of  the  many  ways  in  which 
suggestion  may  be  used  by  the  advertiser.  We  have  but 
to  consider  the  millions  of  persons  who  at  least  glance 
at  advertisements,  to  be  impressed  by  the  possibilities 
opened  to  the  man  who  can  present  his  advertisement 
in  a  form  that  suggests  powerfully  the  purchase  or  use 
of  his  commodity. 


186       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

XV 

THE  WILL:  AN  ANALYSIS 

During  all  the  waking  hours  of  the  day  there  is  some- 
thing about  which  we  are  thinking;  we  have  a  particular 
tone  of  feeling^  and  there  is  something  for  which  we  are 
striving.  We  know  something,  we  feel  somehow,  and 
we  strive  for  something  not  yet  attained.  Knowing, 
feeling,  and  willing  are  the  three  universal  aspects  of 
all  our  mental  activities.  As  I  sit  in  my  chair  I  am 
conscious  of  the  furniture  in  the  room,  the  line  of 
thought  which  I  am  carrying  out,  and  the  necessity  of 
completing  my  task  in  a  given  time ;  I  feel  pleased  with 
the  comfort  of  the  situation  and  the  excitement  of  com- 
position ;  I  am  putting  forth  activity  of  w  ill  in  striving 
to  accomplish  a  certain  end  and  to  express  myself  on  a 
typewriter.  Sometimes  our  condition  is  one  of  intense 
feeling,  at  another  it  is  primarily  intellectual  grasp  of  a 
situation,  and  at  other  times  it  is  especially  a  putting 
forth  the  will  in  attempting  to  accomplish  some  end  or 
to  reach  some  conclusion.  Although  each  of  the  three 
aspects  of  consciousness  may  for  a  time  predominate,  yet 
it  is  probable  that  all  three  activities  are  present  at  all 
moments  of  our  conscious  existence. 

Under  the  will  may  be  included  all  the  active  proc- 
esses of  the  mind.  This  activity  may  express  itself 
either  in  bodily  movements  or  in  some  such  mental  proc- 
esses as  attention  or  volition.  Under  the  bodily  activi- 
ties are  such  as  impulsive,  instinctive,  and  voluntary 
actions.  At  this  time  it  will  be  well  to  confine  our  atten- 
tion to  but  a  part  of  these  activities  of  the  will,  viz., 
voluntary  actions. 


THE  WILL:  AN  ANALYSIS  187 

A  definition  of  volition  would  not  make  the  subject 
any  clearer  to  us,  but  here  the  term  is  used  in  an  un- 
technical  sense  and  includes  such -things  as  decision, 
choice,  voluntary  actions,  and  all  actions  performed 
after  consideration.  It  includes  a  mental  procesl  and 
the  resultant,  bodily  activity. 

It  is  probably  true  that  a  majority  of  our  actions  are 
performed  without  such  consideration,  but  it  is  because 
of  the  existence  of  voluntary  action  that  the  advertiser 
finds  it  necessary  to  proceed  logically  and  to  appeal  to 
the  reason  of  his  customer. 

A  careful  consideration  of  the  elemental  processes 
involved  in  such  actions  is  of  great  advantage  in  enabling 
the  advertiser  to  bring  about  the  decision  desired. 

Voluntary  actions  may  be  analyzed  into  (a)  an  idea 
of  two  or  more  attainable  ends,  ( & )  an  idea  of  the  means 
to  attain  these  ends,  ( c )  a  feeling  of  the  value  of  worthi- 
ness of  the  different  ends,  {d)  sl  comparison  of  the  values 
of  the  different  ends  and  of  the  difficulties  of  the  means, 
and,  finally,  (e)  a  choosing  of  one  of  the  ends  and  striv- 
ing to  attain  it. 

These  ^ye  processes  in  a  voluntary  action  may  be 
illustrated  as  follows :  (a)  I  think  of  a  suit  that  I  might 
buy,  the  trip  that  I  might  take,  and  of  the  debt  that  I 
might  pay;  (6)  I  think  of  the  trouble  of  going  to  the 
tailor  shop,  the  inconvenience  of  waiting  for  the  train, 
and  the  distance  to  be  covered  to  reach  the  creditor;  (c) 
I  feel  in  imagination  the  pleasure  of  possessing  the  new 
suit,  the  delights  connected  with  the  trip,  and  the  satis- 
faction of  having  the  debt  paid;  (d)  I  compare  the  diffi- 
culties of  possessing  each  and  the  pleasures  derivable 
from  the  possession;  {e)  I  decide  to  take  the  trip  and 
start  for  the  ticket  office. 

If  this  is  a  correct  analysis  of  voluntary  action  the 


188       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

question  which  naturally  arises  in  the  mind  of  the  adver- 
tiser is  this:  What  can  be  done  to  cause  the  largest 
number  of  persons  to  decide  in  favor  of  my  particular 
goods?  Suppose  that  the  article  of  merchandise  under 
consideration  be  a  piano :  now  how  may  the  advertiser 
proceed  in  accordance  with  the  analysis  presented  above? 
(a)  The  piano  must  be  brought  before  the  public  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  idea  of  it  will  be  clear  and  distinct 
in  the  minds  of  the  potential  purchasers,  (h)  The  pub- 
lic must  be  informed  exactly  what  is  necessary  to  secure 
the  piano,  (c)  The  piano  must  be  presented  in  such  a 
manner  that  its  value  seems  great.  (d)  The  value 
of  the  piano  must  be  presented  in  such  a  way  that, 
when  compared  with  other  forms  of  action,  the 
purchase  of  the  piano  seems  the  most  desirable.  The 
means  of  securing  the  piano  must  be  made  to  appear 
easy,  (e)  Pressure  must  be  brought  to  bear  to  cause 
immediate  decision  and  action  on  the  part  of  the  public 
in  favor  of  the  particular  piano. 

Elaborations  of  each  of  these  five  points  will  sug- 
gest themselves  to  any  thoughtful  advertiser.  That  the 
idea  of  the  piano  may  be  clear  and  distinct  (a)  illus- 
trations may  be  used  to  advantage;  the  language  used 
should  conform  to  the  mode  of  thinking  of  the  public 
appealed  to;  the  type  used  should  be  easily  read;  the 
description  should  be  as  brief  as  is  possible  for  com- 
pleteness of  presentation  of  essential  features.  In  order 
that  the  public  may  know  exactly  how  to  secure  the 
piano  (h)  the  exact  cost  must  be  presented;  the  method 
of  sending  the  money,  the  delivery  and  setting  up  in  the 
home  might  well  be  included  in  the  statement  of  the  ad- 
vertisement. The  feeling  of  value  may  be  awakened  for 
the  piano  (c)  by  advertising  it  in  the  highest  class  of 
media,  by  having  a  beautiful  advertisement,  by  empha- 


THE  WILL:  AN  ANALYSIS  189 

sizing  the  elegance  of  the  instrument  and  the  perfection 
of  the  tone,  by  indicating  what  a  joy  it  is  in  a  home,  and 
by  any  other  means  which  would  tend  to  associate  the 
piano  with  feelings  of  pleasure.  It  is  assumed  that 
other  pianos  will  be  considered  by  the  possible  purchas- ' 
ers  and  that  when  others  are  considered  they  will  suffer 
by  comparison  (d).  That  this  may  be  true  it  will  be 
necessary  to  describe  the  strong  points  of  the  piano  in 
such  a  way  that  the  value  of  the  piano  seems  great,  and 
the  cost  of  it  and  the  means  of  securing  it  seem  less 
burdensome  than  those  connected  with  competing  pianos. 
That  the  choice  may  be  made  at  once  and  effort  put 
forth  to  secure  the  piano  (e)  reasons  for  avoiding  delay 
might  be  presented  or  the  suggestion  to  action  might  be 
so  strong  that  the  tendency  to  procrastinate  would  be 
overcome. 

Although  every  customer  who  is  induced  to  select  any 
particular  line  of  goods  after  consideration  must  inevi- 
tably perform  the  five  processes  as  described,  and  al- 
though an  ideal  advertisement  would  be  so  constructed 
that  it  would  assist  the  customer  in  completing  each  of 
the  five  processes,  yet  it  is  not  to  be  assumed  that  each 
advertisement  should  be  constructed  so  that  it  would  be 
well  adapted  to  promote  each  of  the  five  processes. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  true  that  many  adver- 
tisements are  ineffective  because  the  writer  has  not  paid 
attention  to  these  fundamental  psychological  processes 
of  voluntary  actions". 

In  the  reproduced  advertisement  of  Triscuit  (No.  1) 
the  first  step  of  the  act  of  volition  (a)  is  emphasized. 
'This  advertisement  gives  the  reader  a  clear  and  vivid 
idea  of  the  product  advertised.  No  one  can  read  the  ad- 
vertisement without  knowing  what  the  product  is  made 
of,  how  it  looks,  how  it  is  manufactured,  and  what  it  is 
good  for. 


190       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

The  reproduced  advertisement  of  Holbrookes  Sauce 
(No.  2)  occupied  the  cover  page  in  a  British  magazine 
which  is  about  twelve  by  sixteen  inches  in  size.  In  all 
this  space  nothing  is  shown  or  said  which  gives  us  an 
idea  of  the  real  nature  of  the  product  advertised.  After 
examining  this  advertisement  carefully  I  am  still  at  a 


)€Utr 


A  PERFECT  FOOD 

.T  ^" 


Con  i.^ud 
Cl',        C-l 

'    Pa'' 

lolo   IVheat.   n 

,.i^^: 

^^ 

.-©islita.- 

rhe  Nc 

tural  Food  Co.     1 

V^,«=^l^— 1^ 

.^=»»iJ 

No.  1. — Adequate  description  of  goods, 
but  inadequate  as  to  method  of  secur- 
ing them. 


loss  to  know  the  real  nature  of  the  product.  Such  a 
use  of  space  can  be  justified  only  on  the  assumption 
that  the  public  is  already  familiar  with  the  sauce,  or 
that  this  is  to  be  but  a  single  link  in  the  chain  and  that 
later  or  preceding  advertisements  supply  what  is  de- 
ficient in  this  single  advertisement. 

Many  an  otherwise  good  advertisement  is  weakened 
because  it  gives  no  adequate  idea  of  the  means  necessary 


THE  WILL:  AN  ANALYSIS 


191 


for  securing  the  goods  advertised.  The  advertiser  is  so 
familiar  with  his  goods  and  the  means  of  securing  them 
that  he  forgets  that  others  know  nothing  of  them.  It 
is  needless  to  reproduce  any  particular  advertisement  to 
illustrate  this  point.     A  large  proportion  of  goods  that 


l^^^^'^r^##^'" 


HQLBROOK'S 
SAUCE 


•'arjpj  jjinrn     -vp-oncEswa-i^jittiiimE: 


f :  :ii 


"c///  ifffuee  fhem. 


No.  2. — Inadequate  description  of  the 
goods  and  of  the  method  of  securing 
them. 


are  widely  distributed  are  advertised  on  the  assumption 
that  everybody  knows  that  they  are  to  be  secured  at  all 
dealers.  It  is  not  wise  to  assume  any  such  knowledge 
on  the  part  of  the  general  public.  In  the  advertisement 
of  Triscuit  no  mention  is  made  of  the  fact  that  it  can 
be  secured  from  all  first-class  grocers,  and  many  persons 
assume  that  Triscuit  can  be  had  only  at  the  address 
given  at  the  foot  of  the  advertisement.     In  the  adver- 


192       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

tisement  of  Holbrook's  Sauce  (No.  2)  no  address  is  given 
and  nothing  is  said  of  the  place  where  it  can  be  secured. 
The  writers  of  the  advertisements  have  assumed  that  the 
public  knows  more  of  these  goods  than  the  facts  warrant. 
The  reproduced  advertisement  of  Jap-a-lac    (No.  3) 


REG,  us.  PAT  OFF. 


A  STAIN  ANJ^  VARMSH  COMBINED 


No.  3. — Adequate  description  of  the  method  of 
securing  the  goods. 


leaves  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  public  as  to  the  means 
of  securing  the  paint.  "For  sale  by  painty  hardware  and 
drug  dealers.  All  sizes  from  15c  to  $2.50.'^  This  state- 
ment is  sufficient  for  most  persons,  but  not  for  all,  and 
we  find  this  statement  in  addition :  "If  your  dealer  does 
not  keep  Jap-a-lac,  send  us  his  name  and  10c  and  we  will 


THE  WILL:  AN  ANALYSIS  193 

send  free  sample/'  This  advertisement  gives  us  a  clear 
idea  of  the  means  necessary  for  securing  the  advertised 
goods  and  hence  facilitates  the  second  process  in  a  volun- 
tary action  and  increases  the  chances  of  securing  the 
desired  action.  No  advertisement  should  ever  appear 
which  leaves  any  doubt  in  the  minds  of  possible  custom- 
ers as  to  where  and  how  the  goods  advertised  can  be 
secured.  The  absence  of  such  information  is  very  com- 
mon and  impresses  the  writer  as  one  of  the  weakest 
points  in  modern  advertising. 

The  third  process  in  our  analysis  of  voluntary  action 
is  the  feeling  of  worthiness  or  value  (c) .  It  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  have  a  clear  idea  of  an  end  and  a  definite  idea 
of  the  means  of  securing  it  unless  there  is  an  accompany- 
ing feeling  of  value.  The  advertiser  is  thus  compelled 
to  make  his  commodity  appear  valuable.  This  fact  is 
accomplished  by  most  advertisers  but  not  by  all.  The 
reproduced  advertisement  of  Nabisco  (No.  4)  presents 
the  product  as  particularly  worthy.  The  advertisement 
is  intrinsicall}^  beautiful.  The  cut  and  the  copy  harmo- 
nize completely.  The  young  girl  depicted  could  be 
described  as  "a  fairy,"  and  "airy  lightness  and  exquisite 
composition''  is  characteristic  of  the  entire  cut.  The 
copy  appeals  to  our  instinctive  desires  for  savory  viands 
in  a  most  enticing  manner,  and  also  appeals  to  the  femi- 
nine social  instinct  by  the  following  words :  ".  .  .  to 
afford  the  hostess  opportunity  for  many  original  con- 
ceptions in  the  serving  of  desserts."  The  greatest  feel- 
ing of  worth  attaches  itself  to  those  things  which  are  the 
objects  of  our  most  fundamental  instinctive  desires.  A 
feeling  of  worth  inevitably  attaches  itself  to  every  savory 
viand,  to  every  beautiful  object,  and  to  every  agency 
which  furthers  our  social  instincts. 

The  fourth  process  in  our  analysis   (d)  is  the  com- 


194       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

parison  of  competing  ends  as  to  value  and  means  of 
acquisition.  When  an  advertiser  realizes  that  the  pub- 
lic to  which  he  is  appealing  will  compare  his  goods  with 
those  of  his  competitor,  he  is  tempted  to  resort  to  the 
questionable  method  of  showing  the  weak  points  of  his 
competitor's  merchandise  or  method  of  sales.      There 


^ 
% 


cinpiacioii     i 


NABISCO 


Ik^ 


No.    4. — This   advertisement    arouses    a 
feeling  of  appreciation. 

may  be  instances  in  which  this  method  is  justifiable  and 
even  necessary,  but  ordinarily  it  is  self-destructive.  The* 
act  of  comparison  {d)  is  a  process  in  volition  that  the  ad- 
vertiser should  not  seek  to  encourage.  It  is  a  hindrance 
to  the  advertiser  and  his  function  is  to  minimize  it.  If 
I,  as  an  advertiser,  am  offering  goods  in  competition 
with  other  goods,  I  know  that  my  goods  will  be  compared 
with  the  others,  and  it  is  my  place  to  give  the  reader  such 


THE  WILL:  AN  ANALYSIS  195 

a  clear  and  vivid  idea  of  my  goods  (a)  and  to  make  the 
means  of  securing  them  so  plain  (&)  that  my  goods  will 
not  suffer  by  comparison.  My  purpose  is  best  served  by 
holding  my  goods  up  to  the  attention  of  the  potential  pur- 
chaser and  not  by  emphasizing  the  weaknesses  of  those 
of  my  competitor.  I  must  emphasize  the  strong  points 
of  my  merchandise  and  especially  those  points  in  which 
my  goods  are  superior  to  competing  goods,  and  in  this 
way  I  get  attention  to  those  points  at  which  my  goods 
will  gain  by  comparison. 

The  last  point  in  the  analysis  of  the  process  of  volition 
(e)  is  that  of  choosing  one  of  the  ends  and  striving  to 
attain  it.  All  the  other  stages  of  the  process  are  but 
subsidiary  to  this.  What  can  the  advertiser  do  to  secure 
or  to  facilitate  this  part  of  the  process?  It  is  a  well- 
known  psychological  fact  that  at  the  moment  of  final 
decision  all  competing  ideas  are  usually  banished  from 
the  mind  and  attention  is  centered  on  the  idea  (the  mer- 
chandise) which  is  chosen.  At  the  moment  of  final 
choice  we  do  not  hold  competing  lines  of  action  before 
us  and  then  choose  the  one  that  seems  the  best.  The 
process  is  one  of  elimination  preceding  the  choice.  We 
compare  different  lines  of  action  and  eliminate  one  after 
another  till  but  one  is  left.  This  one  has  seemed  better 
than  the  others  and  it  is  held  to  and  acted  upon.  The 
acting  upon  it  is  often  a  part  of  the  choice.  The  one 
line  of  action  is  before  us  and  the  very  act  of  attending 
to  the  one  idea  results  in  the  appropriate  action.  There 
may  have  been  no  conscious  choice  preceding  the  action, 
but  now  that  the  action  has  commenced  the  competing 
ideas  are  kept  from  the  mind  and  the  action  gets  put 
into  fulfillment.  There  are  therefore  two  distinct 
things  which  the  advertiser  can  do  to  facilitate  this  final 
step.     In  the  first  place  he  fills  the  mind  of  his  potential 


196       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

customers  with  thoughts  of  his  own  particular  goods, 
and  in  the  second  place  he  suggests  immediate  action. 
The  mind  of  the  customer  is  filled  by  the  processes  de- 
scribed in  (a),  (h),  and  (c).  Immediate  action  is  sug- 
gested by  ( & )  and  by  some  such  device  as  the  return  cou- 
pon, the  direct  command,  etc.  ( For  a  fuller  discussion  of 
this  point  see  chapters  V  and  VI  of  "The  Theory  of  Ad- 
vertising.") The  advertiser  who  fails  to  state  the  method 
of  securing  his  goods  fail^  to  give  one  of  the  strongest 
possible  suggestions  to  action. 

If  it  were  even  possible  that  every  reader  of  the  adver- 
tisement of  Jap-a-lac  already  knew  the  price  of  it  and 
where  it  could  be  secured,  still  the  advertisement  is 
strengthened  by  giving  these  details  in  that  it  gives  the 
suggestion  to  action  as  nothing  else  could  do.  The  sug- 
gestion to  action  might  be  strengthened  by  additional 
details  but  not  by  substituting  for  them. 


THE  AVILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION         197 


XVI 
THE  WILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION 

In  the  preceding  chapter  an  analysis  of  a  typical  ac- 
tion was  given  without  reference  to  the  fact  that  actions 
are  not  ordinarily  typical.  No  two  acts  are  exactly 
alike.  Individuals  are  different  and  employ  divers 
methods  in  performing  their  acts.  In  the  case  of  a 
single  individual  the  most  diverse  methods  are  employed 
at  different  times  and  under  diffe^^ent  circumstances. 
The  personal  differences  in  methoa^  of  deciding  ques- 
tions and  resultant  actions  have  been  so  beautifully  ex- 
pressed by  Prof.  William  James  that  it  seems  useless 
to  attempt  any  improvement  upon  his  presentation  of 
the  five  methods  of  deciding  or  choosing : 

^'The  first  method  may  be  called  the  reasonable  type. 
It  is  that  of  those  cases  in  which  the  arguments  for  and 
against  a  given  course  seem  gradually  and  almost  in- 
sensibly to  settle  themselves  in  the  mind  and  to  end 
by  leaving  a  clear  balance  in  favor  of  one  alternative, 
which  alternative  we  then  adopt  without  effort  or  con- 
straint. .  .  .  The  conclusive  reason  for  the  decision  in 
these  cases  usually  is  the  discovery  that  we  can  refer  the 
case  to  a  class  upon  which  we  are  accustomed  to  act 
unhesitatingly  in  a  certain  stereotyped  way.  .  .  .  The 
moment  we  hit  upon  a  conception  which  lets  us  apply 
some  principle  of  action  which  is  a  fixed  and  stable  part 
of  our  Ego,  our  state  of  doubt  is  at  an  end.  Persons 
of  authority,  who  have  to  make  many  decisions  in  the 
day,  carry  with  them  a  set  of  heads  of  classification. 


198       THE  PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

each  bearing  its  volitional  consequence,  and  under  these 
they  seek  as  far  as  possible  to  range  each  new  emer- 
gency as  it  occurs.  It  is  where  the  emergency  belongs  to 
a  species  without  precedent,  to  which  consequently 
no  cut-and-dried  maxim  will  apply,  that  we  feel  most 
at  a  loss,  and  are  distressed  at  the  indeterminateness 
of  our  task.  As  soon,  however,  as  we  see  our  way  to 
a  familiar  classification,  w^e  are  at  ease  again.  .  .  .  The 
concrete  dilemmas  do  not  come  to  us  with  labels  gummed 
on  their  backs.  We  may  name  them  by  many  names. 
The  wise  man  is  he  who  succeeds  in  finding  the  name 
which  suits  the  needs  of  the  particular  occasion  best. 

"A  ^reasonable'  character  is  one  who  has  a  store  of 
stable  and  worthy  ends,  and  who  does  not  decide  about 
an  action  till  he  has  calmly  ascertained  whether  it  be 
ministerial  or  detrimental  to  any  one  of  these.  In  the 
next  two  types  of  decision,  the  final  fiat  occurs  before  the 
evidence  is  all  ^in.'  It  often  happens  that  no  paramount 
and  authoritative  reason  for  either  course  will  come. 
Either  seems  good,  and  there  is  no  umpire  to  decide 
which  should' yield  its  place  to  the  other.  We  grow 
tired  of  long  hesitation  and  inconclusiveness,  and  the 
hour  may  come  when  we  feel  that  even  a  bad  decision 
is  better  than  no  decision  at  all.  Under  these  condi- 
tions it  will  often  happen  that  some  accidental  circum- 
stance, supervening  at  a  particular  moment  upon  our 
mental  weariness,  will  upset  the  balance  in  the  direction 
of  one  of  the  alternatives,  to  which  we  then  feel  our- 
selves committed,  although  an  opposite  accident  at  the 
same  time  might  have  produced  the  opposite  result. 

"In  the  second  type  our  feeling  is  to  a  great  extent 
that  of  letting  ourselves  drift  with  a  certain  indifferent 
acquiescence  in  a  direction  accidentally  determined  from 
without,  with  the  conviction  that,  after  all,  we  might  as 


THE  WILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION  199 

well  stand  by  this  course  as  by  the  other,  and  that  things 
are  in  any  event  sure  to  turn  out  sufficiently  right. 

^^In  the  third  type  the  determination  seems  equally 
accidental,  but  it  comes  from  within,  and  not  from  with- 
out. It  often  happens,  when  the  absence  of  imperative 
principles  is  perplexing  and  suspense  distracting,  that 
we  find  ourselves  acting,  as  it  were,  automatically,  and 
as  if  by  a  spontaneous  discharge  of  our  nerves,  in  the 
direction  of  one  of  the  horns  of  the  dilemma.  But  so 
exciting  is  this  sense  of  motion  after  our  intolerable 
pent-up  state  that  we  eagerly  throw  ourselves  into  it. 
^Forward  now!'  we  inwardly  cry,  'though  the  heavens 
fall.' 

"There  is  a  fourth  form  of  decision,  which  often  ends 
deliberation  as  suddenly  as  the  third  form  does.  It 
comes  when,  in  consequence  of  some  outer  experience 
or  some  inexplicable  inward  change,  we  suddenly  pass 
from  the  easy  and  careless  to  the  sober  and  strenuous 
moody  or  possibly  the  other  way.  The  whole  scale  of 
values  of  our  motives  and  impulses  then  undergoes  a 
change  like  that  which  a  change  of  the  observer's  level 
produces  on  a  view.  The  most  sobering  possible  agents 
are  objects  of  grief  and  fear.  When  one  of  these  affects 
us,  all  ^light  fantastic'  notions  lose  their  motive  power, 
all  solemn  ones  find  theirs  multiplied  many  fold.  The 
consequence  is  an  instant  abandonment  of  the  more 
trivial  projects  with  which  we  had  been  dallying,  and  an 
instant  practical  acceptance  of  the  more  grim  and 
earnest  alternative  which  till  then  could  not  extort  our 
mind's  consent.  All  those  ^changes  of  heart,'  ^awaken- 
ings of  conscience,'  etc.,  which  make  new  men  of  so 
many  of  us  may  be  classed  under  this  head.  The  char- 
acter abruptly  rises  to  another  'level,'  and  deliberation 
^omes  to  an  immediate  end 


200       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

^^In  the  fifth  and  final  type  of  decision,  the  feeling  that 
the  evidence  is  all  in,  and  that  reason  has  balanced  the 
books,  may  be  either  present  or  absent.  But  in  either 
case  we  feel,  in  deciding,  as  if  we  ourselves  by  our  own 
wilful  act  inclined  the  beam:  in  the  former  case  by 
adding  our  living  effort  to  the  weight  of  the  logical  rea- 
son which,  taken  alone,  seems  powerless  to  make  the 
act  discharge;  in  the  latter  by  a  kind  of  creative  con- 
tribution of  something  instead  of  a  reason  which  does 
a  reason's  work.  The  slow  dead  heave  of  the  will  that 
is  felt  in  these  instances  makes  a  class  of  them  alto- 
gether different  subjectively  from  all  the  four  preceding 
classes.  If  examined  closely,  its  chief  difference  from 
the  former  cases  appears  to  be  that  in  these  cases  the 
mind  at  the  moment  of  deciding  on  the  triumphant 
alternative  dropped  the  other  one  wholly  or  nearly  out 
of  sight,  whereas  here  both  alternatives  are  steadily  held 
in  view,  and  in  the  very  act  of  murdering  the  van- 
quished possibility  the  chooser  realizes  how  much  in 
that  instant  he  is  making  himself  lose." 

These  five  methods  of  deciding  are  methods  which  we 
all  use  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Every  one  has  prob- 
ably experienced  each  of  them  at  some  time,  yet  some 
people  habitually  decide  by  one  method  and  others  by 
another.  The  man  who  habitually  waits  in  deciding 
till  all  the  reasons  for  and  against  a  line  of  action  are 
before  him  belongs  to  the  first  class.  The  man  who 
"flips  a  copper"  whenever  anything  is  to  be  decided 
belongs  to  the  second  class.  The  man  who  is  impulsive 
and  who  acts  "intuitively,"  but  who  does  not  know 
w^hy  he  acts  so,  belongs  to  the  third  class.  These  three 
classes  are  known  to  us  all.  There  is  probably  no  one 
who  decides  questions  habitually  after  the  manner  de- 
scribed in  Professor  James'  fourth  and  fifth  classes. 


THE  WILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION         201 

Of  these  five  methods  of  decision  some  are  of  little 
significance  to  the  advertiser  although  of  primal  sig- 
nificance to  the  psychologist.  The  fifth,  then,  is  of  no 
significance  to  the  advertiser  except  that  it  is  the  form 
which  he  seeks  to  obviate.  He  tries  to  get  the  public  to 
dismiss  all  thought  of  competing  articles.  To  accom- 
plish this  he  makes  no  mention  of  competitors,  but  con- 
fines his  argument  to  his  own  commodity. 

In  the  fourth  of  Professor  James'  divisions  the  per- 
son, in  deciding,  passes  from  the  easy  and  careless  to 
the  sober  and  strenuous  mood.  This  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  certain  advertisements  may  be  seen  and  read 
frequently  with  no  effect  for  years,  then  suddenly  this 
same  advertisement  becomes  all-powerful.  This  is  true 
in  advertising  such  things  as  life  insurance,  homes,  good 
books,  and  other  forms  of  merchandise  which  appeal  to 
the  higher  nature  of  man.  The  reproduced  advertise- 
ment of  Modern  Eloquence  (No.  1)  might  not  appeal 
powerfully  to  readers  while  they  are  in  a  careless  and 
easy  mood,  but  when  the  mood  is  changed  the  same 
advertisement  might  be  most  effective. 

In  the  third  type,  which  is  mainly  a  form  of  sug- 
gestion, the  decision  is  dependent  upon  a  sudden  spon- 
taneity of  an  emotional  nature  and  leaves  but  little  for 
the  advertiser  to  do.  Women  decide  after  this  fashion 
more  frequently  than  men.  Here  the  advertiser  can 
do  most  by  appealing  to  the  artistic  and  sentimental 
natures  of  the  possible  customers.  The  appearance  of 
the  advertisement,  of  the  store,  or  of  the  salesman  is 
not  recognized  by  the  woman  as  the  deciding  element, 
although  in  reality  it  is.  If  a  lady  were  debating  the 
question  as  to  which  goods  she  should  order,  an  appeal 
to  the  artistic  and  sentimental  might  awaken  her  emo- 
tional nature  sufficiently  to  cause  her  to  decide,  and 


202       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

that  which  awakens  the  emotion  would  be  likely  to 
be  chosen. 

The  second  method  of  decision  is  not  strictly  a  reason- 


t 


ircaler  iipporiuiruieSs 


No.  1. — The  effect  of  this  advertise- 
ment depends  upon  the  mood  of 
the  reader. 


ing  type,  but  is  one  which  approaches  action  upon  sug- 
gestion and  hence  anything  which  the  advertiser  can  do 
to  suggest  action  aids  in  securing  the  results  which  come 
under  this  class.  This  class  of  persons  will  not,  at  the 
critical  moment,  search  through  the  back  files  of  maga- 


THE  WILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION 


203 


zines  to  find  an  advertisement,  neither  will  tliey  exert 
themselves  to  find  a  store  not  centrally  located  if  a  more 
convenient  one  is  passed  at  the  critical  moment  of  de- 
cision. If  I  belong  to  this  second  of  Professor  James' 
classes,  and  if  I  am  trying  to  decide  which  watch  I  shall 


No.  2. — A  poor  advertisement,  but  one  which 
under  certain  circumstances  mi^ht  be  fairly 
successful. 


buy,  I  will  purchase  the  one  which  presents  itself  to  me 
at  the  psychological  moment,  whether  the  presentation 
be  by  advertisement,  salesman,  or  store.  An  extensive 
advertiser  recently  said  that  any  kind  of  advertising 
would  succeed  if  the  advertisements  were  large  and  if 
they  appeared  frequently  enough.     This  statement  is 


204       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

certainly  not  true  but  it  does  find  some  justification 
based  on  the  decisions  of  such  persons  as  are  assigned 
to  eJames^  second  type.  The  reproduced  advertisement 
of  Pears'  Soap  (No.  2)  is  so  exceedingly  poor  that  it 
would  be  defended  by  but  few.  If  a  man  were  debating 
which  sort  of  soap  he  shoulc^  purchase  and  if  at  the 
critical  moment  he  should  see  this  advertisement  it  might 
possibly  induce  him  to  order  Pears'.  The  reproduced 
advertisement  of  Cook's  Flaked  Rice  (No.  3)  is  similar 
to  that  of  Pears'  Soap.  If  these  two  advertisements  (and 
others  equally  poor)  were  given  extensive  publicity  they 
would  undoubtedl}^  increase  the  sale  of  the  goods  ad- 
vertised simply  because  so  many  persons  decide  accord- 
ing to  Professor  James'  second  class  and  because  so  many 
unimportant  questions  are  decided  by  us  all  according 
to  this  method.  This  is  no  justification  of  poor  adver- 
tising, but  it  helps  to  explain  why  poor  advertisements 
are  sometimes  successful. 

Professor  James'  first  method  of  decision  is  of  the 
greatest  significance  to  advertisers  of  all  sorts  of  mer- 
chandise, but  especially  to  those  who  offer  goods  of  a 
high  price  and  of  such  a  nature  that  the  same  person 
purchases  but  once  or  a  few  times  during  his  life. 
Among  such  goods  would  be  included  pianos,  life  in- 
surance, automobiles,  and  many  other  advertised  arti- 
cles. Furthermore,  the  persons  who  frequently  use 
this  first  method  of  deciding  are  so  numerous  that  it  is 
essential  to  appeal  to  the  "  reason  "  of  the  public  in  ex- 
ploiting any  kind  of  merchandise. 

The  great  diversity  in  individuals  and  the  numer- 
ous motives  which  influence  the  same  individual,  added 
to  the  apparent  complete  freedom  of  the  human  will, 
would  seem,  combined,  to  make  an  insuperable  obstacle 
to  reasoning  with  groups  of  people  by  any  such  means  as 


THE  WILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION 


205 


the  printed  page.  Human  choice  has  always  been  as- 
sumed to  be  unknown,  to  be  the  one  indeterminable 
factor  in  the  universe.  In  spite  of  all  this  we  have 
come  to  see  that  human  action  is  governed  by  known 
laws  and  that  by  carefully  studying  the  nature  of  so- 


No.  3. — A  poor  advertisement,  but  one  which 
under  certain  circumstances  might  be  fairly 
successful. 


ciety  and  the  influences  at  work  prophecies  may  be 
made  within  certain  limits  which  are  sufficiently  ac- 
curate for  all  practical  purposes.  Under  given  po- 
litical, social,  and  industrial  conditions  the  number  and 
character  of  crimes  remain  constant.  The  suicides 
distribute  themselves  in  a  most  remarkable  manner, 
even  as  to  the  age,  occupation,  and  sex  of  the  person 


206       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

and  the  manner  of  committing  tlie  crime.  The  num- 
ber of  marriages  each  year  is  more  regular  than  the 
number  of  deaths.  Famine  increases  the  number  of 
crimes  against  property  and  decreases  the  number  of 
marriages.  The  wise  merchant  knows  to  a  certainty 
from  the  political,  social,  and  industrial  condition  of 
the  country  that  there  will  be  increased  or  decreased 
demand  for  individual  lines  of  goods.  Despite  all  the 
uncertainty  of  human  choice  he  knows  that  there  are 
certain  conditions  which  determine  the  number  who 
will  choose  his  commodity  and  take  the^ains  to  secure 
it. 

The  advertiser  is  the  diplomat  of  the  commercial 
and  industrial  world.  It  is  his  duty  to  know  the  com- 
modity to  be  exploited  and  the  public  to  be  reached. 
Even  though  the  commodity  to  be  sold  may  seem  very 
simple,  in  reality  it  is  not  so.  The  essential  thing  in 
every  object  is  the  relations  which  it  has  and  the  func- 
tions which  it  fulfills.  The  presentation  of  these  rela- 
tionships and  functions  in  a  way  that  will  cause  the 
possible  purchaser  to  respond  is  a  task  that  is  not  likely 
to  be  overestimated. 

The  same  goods  may  be  presented  in  a  score  of  dif- 
ferent ways.  The  goods  remain  the  same,  but  the  manner 
of  presentation  meets  with  marked  differences  in  the  re- 
sponse of  the  public.  One  presentation  may  invite  sus- 
picion and  another  confidence.  Suspicion  is  nothing  but 
an  exaggerated  tendency  to  call  up  possible  evil  con- 
sequences, and  confidence  is  an  unusual  absence  of  the 
same  tendency.  The  text  and  illustration  of  the  adver- 
tisement, the  make-up,  and  the  reputation  of  the  medium, 
etc.,  all  unite  to  increase  or  decrease  this  tendency  to 
hesitate  and  call  up  possible  evil  consequences.  The  ad- 
vertiser cannot  be  too   careful  in   scrutinizing  every- 


THE  WILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION         207 

thing  that  goes  to  make  up  an  advertisement  to  see 
that  nothing  is  present  which  would  increase  the  tend- 
ency to  recall  from  the  past  experience  evil  consequences 
which  have  accompanied  other  actions.  The  advertising 
manager  of  a  publication  should  refuse  not  only  all  dis- 
honest advertisements,  but  also  all  those  which  would 
tend  to  make  readers  suspicious,  even  if  such  suspicions 
were  ungrounded.  A  publication  which  has  been  taken 
in  the  home  for  years,  which  has  become  trusted  because 
of  long  years  of  reliable  service,  is  inestimable  in  its 
value  to  the  advertiser. 

We  frequently  hesitate  to  allow  time  for  the  sugges- 
tion of  possible  evil  consequences,  but  if  such  conse- 
quences do  not  suggest  themselves  in  too  great  a  number 
and  with  too  great  vividness,  action  may  follow.  Thus 
persons  often  respond  to  advertisements  long  after  they 
first  read  them.  They  could  not  be  induced  to  respond 
at  once  but  at  a  later  time  they  do  respond,  although 
there  has  been  no  additional  ground  given  for  such 
action.  We  are  all  a  little  suspicious  of  hasty  actions, 
and  the  older  we  grow  the  more  suspicious  we  become. 
It  is  frequently  wise  not  to  attempt  to  secure  immediate 
response,  for  it  requires  more  effort  than  it  would  if  the 
public  were  given  a  longer  time  in  which  to  allay  their 
suspicions.  Advertisers  are  frequently  surprised  by  the 
few  responses  which  they  receive  at  first  from  their 
advertisements  and  by  the  great  response  which  they 
secure  at  a  later  time,  although  the  first  advertisement 
was  in  every  way  as  good  as  the  second.  There  are  per- 
sons who  will  answer  an  advertisement  the  first  time  they 
see  it,  but  there  are  many  others  who  will  not  do  so. 
There  are  some  who  will  answer  the  first  advertise- 
ment but  will  wait  a  week  or  so  to  answer,  others  will 
wait  till  they  see  the  second  or  third  of  the  series  and 


208       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

then  answer.  The  first  time  they  saw  the  advertise- 
ment there  was  a  personal  desire  for  the  goods  adver- 
tised, but  the  fear  of  hasty  action  was  enough  to  re- 
strain action.  At  a  later  time  such  fear  is  diminished, 
and  the  mere  fact  that  the  advertisement  had  begotten 
a  desire  upon  its  first  appearance  serves  to  increase  the 
desire  upon  the  second  reading  of  the  same  or  a  similar 
advertisement.  Continuous  consecutive  advertising 
ineets  the  method  of  response  both  of  those  suggestible 
creatures  who  act  without  hesitation  and  also  of  those 
who  are  too  cautious  to  respond  till  after  sufficient 
time  has  elapsed  for  all  the  evil  consequences  to  pre- 
sent themselves. 

It  was  pointed  out  above  that  deliberation  often  oc- 
curs because  the  presentation  of  one  line  of  action 
suggests  to  our  minds  another  similar  and  incompatible 
action.  This  sort  of  deliberate  action,  as  also  that  result- 
ing from  a  suggestion  of  evil  consequences,  is  common 
in  actions  where  large  interests  are  at  stake.  In  pur- 
chasing an  article  that  costs  some  hundreds  of  dollars 
most  persons  would  deliberate  and  consider  other  goods 
of  the  same  class.  Thus  in  purchasing  a  piano  or  an 
automobile  it  is  to  be  expected  that  no  one  would  be  satis- 
fied with  the  presentation  of  one  make,  but  would  con- 
sider each  make  in  relation  to  others.  Although  this  is 
true,  yet  it  is  the  function  of  the  advertiser  to  get  the 
public  to  think  of  one  particular  article,  and  the  ad- 
vertiser should  in  general  make  no  references  to  com- 
peting goods.  The  buyer  may,  indeed,  think  of  such 
goods  as  might  be  purchased,  instead  of  those  presented 
in  the  advertisement,  but  the  advertiser  cannot  afford 
to  occupy  space  in  furthering  this  tendency.  If  the 
advertisement  can  be  so  constructed  that  it  holds  the 
reader's  attention  to  the  goods  advertised  and  does  not 


THE  WILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION         209 

suggest  competing  goods,  it  has  done  much  to  shorten 
the  period  of  deliberation  and  secure  decision  in  favor 
of  the  goods  advertised.  Every  slur  and  every  remark 
intended  to  weaken  the  opponent's  argument  serves  to 
call  attention  to  the  goods  criticised  and  thus  to  divide 
the  reader's  attention  and  so  keep  the  advertisement 
from  having  its  due  weight. 

It  is  possible  to  hold  two  lines  of  action  before  us 
and,  with  both  thus  attended  to,  to  decide  for  the  one 
and  against  the  other.  Such  a  decision  is  made  with 
conscious  effort,  is  unpleasing  and  is  not  common.  We 
may  debate  between  two  courses  of  action  and  hold 
both  clearly  in  mind  for  some  time,  but  at  the  moment 
of  decision  one  course  has  usually  occupied  the  mind 
completely  and  the  other,  by  dropping  from  the  at- 
tention, loses  the  contest,  and  action  in  favor  of  the 
object  occupying  the  mind  is  commenced.  What  the 
advertiser  must  do,  therefore,  is  to  help  the  reader  to 
get  rid  of  the  necessity  of  decision  by  effort,  and  he  can 
do  this  by  so  presenting  his  goods  that  they  occupy  the 
attention  completely.  Under  such  circumstances  de- 
cision becomes  easy  and  prompt. 

The  parts  of  an  advertisement  may  weaken  instead 
of  strengthen  each  other.  One  part  of  the  advertise- 
ment may  offer  a  substitute  which  causes  us  to  hesi- 
tate about  acting  upon  another  part.  It  is  possible  to 
present  two  articles  which  seem  equally  desirable  be- 
cause too  little  description  is  given  of  the  articles  ad- 
vertised. In  such  a  case  the  reader  is  unable  to  make 
up  his  mind,  and  hesitation  and  procrastination  follow 
until  the  initial  desire  for  the  goods  has  vanished. 
"  He  who  hesitates  is  lost "  is  a  frequent  quotation, 
but  it  would  be  more  applicable  if  we  should  change 
it  to,  "The  possible  customer  who  is  caused  to  hesitate 


210       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

is  lost.^'  A  single  advertisement  should  not  present 
competing  goods  unless  sufficient  argument  is  given 
to  make  it  possible  for  the  reader  to  make  up  his  mind 
and  to  act  at  once. 

Not  only  must  the  advertiser  avoid  presenting  sug- 
gestions of  evil  consequences  and  possible  substitutes 
for  his  own  commodity,  but  he  must  use  the  greatest 
skill  to  discover  the  conception  which  in  any  particular 
case  will  lead  to  action.  In  Professor  James'  five 
methods  presented  above,  the  most  significant  thing 
in  the  discussion  is  the  following:  ^'The  conclusive 
reason  for  the  decision  in  these  cases  usually  is  the 
discovery  that  we  can  refer  the  case  to  a  class  upon  which 
we  are  accustomed  to  act  unhesitatingly  in  a  stereotyped 
way.  The  moment  we  hit  upon  a  conception  which 
allows  us  to  apply  a  principle  of  action  which  is  a  fixed 
and  stable  part  of  our  Ego,  our  state  of  doubt  is  at  an 
end." 

Recently  an  attempt  was  made  to  discover  the  con- 
ceptions which  actually  are  effective  in  leading  persons 
to  answer  advertisements  and  to  purchase  advertised 
goods.  Upon  this  point  the  statements  of  several 
thousand  perso'ns  were  examined.  The  result  was  most 
interesting  and  instructive.  Among  the  effective  motives 
or  conceptions  the  following  were  prominent : 

1.  Reliability  of  the  goods  or  the  firm. 

2.  The  goods  supply  a  present  need. 

3.  Money  considerations,  e.g.,  cheapness,  investment, 
chance  to  win. 

4.  Labor-saving,  convenient,  or  useful. 

5.  Healthful. 

6.  Stylish. 

7.  An  attractive  and  frequently  repeated  advertise- 
ment. 


THE  WILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION         211 

Of  these  seven  reasons  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
second  and  last  should  not  be  included  in  the  reasoning 
type.  In  the  second  the  goods  were  suggested  at  the 
time  they  were  needed  and  the  purchase  followed  with- 
out further   consideration.      In   the   seventh   the   pur- 


^1         piLOPLK  w\v,  tare  (n 
It!'        ■'^^toikt  take  gre.ii  satisiat,.;-  :.  ...  ^,,_,.,  .;,.„a,-- 
P  i ,     ■■  niitl.  Fine,  «moo!l;  texture  arte  deligJilful  to  the  skin, 
Jj'!;'  .  .'-'Soap  nmf,  iost;iTit(y,  leaving  a  clean    absence  o| 


JkA^^S^i 


No.  4. — Purity  as  the  controlling  conception. 


chaser  was  influenced  by  the  constant  suggestion  which 
was  offered  by  the  frequently  recifrrent  attractive  ad- 
vertisement. 

If  the  right  conception  is  presented  at  the  right  time, 
the  desired  action  will  follow.  In  the  reproduced  ad- 
vertisement of  Ivory  Soap  (No.  4)  it  is  assumed  that 
women  purchase  the  soap  and  that  for  many  of  them, 
including   such    as    the    one   shown   in   the    cut,    the 


212       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

purity  and  reliability  of  the  article  is  the  quality  of 
greatest  concern.  Hence  the  conception  of  Ivory  Soap  as 


No.  5. — A  furnace  con- 
ceived as  a  good  invest- 
ment. 


pure  and  reliable  is  the  one  conception  above  all  others 
which  will  sell  it. 

With  very  many  persons  it  was  found  that  a  good 
investment  is  the  conception  which  leads  to  immediate 
action.  Therefore  if  radiators  are  presented  satisfac- 
torily as  a  good  investment,  the  question  is  settled  at 


THE  WILL:  VARIETY  IN  ACTION 


213 


once  and  the  radiators  are  purchased.  The  reproduced 
advertisement  of  the  American  Radiator  Company  (No. 
5 ) ,  appearing  in  women's  magazines,  was  evidently  con- 
structed on  this  principle. 

Very  many   goods    are   advertised,    and   with    great 
success,  as  being  labor-saving,  convenient,  or  useful. 


SCHOOL  TEACHER 

PuUed  Down  fUll. 

«l  rtOed  as  coffM  to  aucb  to  luep  nu  ap,  tuvtac  pteo  told  lliu  llvUk  ••M 
•ttmalint,'  that  I  hardly  knew  what  to  do  when  I  foood  il  oaa  raally  pulliDg  OM  do«» 
bill.  Uy  tieep  wa>  badly  broken  at  ni(hl  and  I  wat  all  aotUna|,  cxcMdin(lj  oonoott 
•ad  breakme  down  (a«t.     My  work  U  teaching  acboot. 

-When  it  became  evident  tliit  I  trai  in  a  very  bad  condition,  I  »u  induced  to  lean 
oS  coffee  and  try  Pojlum  Food  Coffee.  Mother  made  it  Snt,  but  none  of  ua  could  ndura 
It,  it  wai  so  flat  and  laiteleea  She  proposed  to  throw  the  package  away,  but  I  aaid, 
■  Suepeod  judgment  until  wa  have  made  it  ttrictly  according  to  directions.'  11  teeau  ahu 
had  made  the  Poitum  like  the  always  made  coffee,  taking  it  off  the  stove  as  soon  aa  it  began 
to  boiL  1  got  titter  to  make  tba  Pottum  neat  morning  ttrictly  accordia|  to  dIcMtloau, 
that  is,  allow  it  to  boil  full  Sflaao  minutes  after  the  boiling  begins. 
_  -We  were  all  amaxed  at  the  difference.  Sitter  taid  il  wat  better  ettf,  Co  bar  taa«% 
than  the  old,  and  father,  who  it  an  elderly  gentleman  and  had  uaed  nffea  all  his  tife, 
appeared  to  relish  the  Postum  as  well  aa  my  UtU*  brother,  who  look  lo  it  from  lh«  trat 
We  were  all  greatly  improved  in  health  and  m  now  strong  advocatea  ol  Poelum  Food 
Coffee.  Please  om.l  my  n.me  from  pobllcaUon."  fUjle,  CoL  NUM  CU  b*  |hf«  b} 
Pottttm  Ccrtal  Co.  Ltd.,  Bsiile  Creek,  Micb. 


No.  6. — This  series  of  advertisements  assumes 
the  efiEectiveness  of  the  conception,  health. 


The  reproduced  advertisement  of  Postum  Cereal  (No. 
6)  is  open  to  severe  criticism.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  there  are  many  persons  to  whom  the 
conception  of  health  is  all-powerful.  For  such  this  ad- 
vertisement might  be  irresistible. 

Clothing,  diamonds,  magazines,  and  hundreds  of  other 


214       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

things  are  successfully  advertised  by  emphasis  upon 
the  stylishness  of  the  goods:  upon  the  social  prestige 
enjoyed  by  their  possessors. 

It  is  a  wise  advertiser  that  can  select  the  concep- 
tions that  will  fit  into  the  principles  of  action  of  the 
greatest  number  of  possible  customers. 


HABIT  215 


XYII 
HABIT 

The  term  "habit''  has  been  so  frequently  confined  to 
a  few  questionable  or  bad  habits  that  the  broader  sig- 
nificance of  the  term  is  ordinarily  lost.  We  are  all 
creatures  of  habit  and  have  some  good  and  some  bad  ones. 
It  is  an  interesting  study  for  any  one  to  observe  his  own 
actions  and  thoughts  and  to  see  what  he  does  habitually. 
I  tried  recently  to  make  such  a  study  of  myself,  but 
found  that  if  I  should  be  compelled  to  record  all  my 
liabitual  actions  and  thoughts  it  would  keep  a  ste- 
nographer busy  all  day  and  a  camera  would  have  to  be 
directed  toward  me  for  every  move  I  made.  I  found  that 
I  got  out  of  bed  in  the  morning  in  a  way  peculiar  to  my- 
self. I  put  on  my  clothes  in  a  stereotyped  order.  I  put 
my  left  shoe  on  first  —  I  always  do.  I  put  my  coat  on 
by  putting  on  my  right  sleeve  first,  and  when  I  tried  to 
reverse  the  order  I  found  it  very  difficult.  I  picked  up 
the  morning  paper  and  glanced  over  the  first  page ;  then 
I  turned  to  the  last  page  and  from  there  looked  through 
the  paper  from  the  last  to  the  first  page  and  so  ended 
where  I  had  begun.  This  is  my  habitual  method  of 
reading  the  morning  paper,  although  I  had  not  observed 
the  fact  till  that  time. 

I  put  sugar  on  my  breakfast  food  first  and  added 
cream  later.  The  manner  in  which  I  rose  from  the 
table,  put  on  my  hat  and  left  the  house  was  peculiar 
to  myself.     My  manner  of  walking  was  such  that  my 


216       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

friends,  seeing  me  in  the  distance,  knew  me.  I  walked 
down  town  by  the  same  street  wiiich  I  had  been  going 
over  for  years,  although  there  were  several  other  streets 
equally  good  and  convenient.  I  addressed  my  friends 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  recognized  me  even  when 
they  did  not  see  me.  I  took  up  my  work  and  went 
through  it  in  a  regular  routine. 

The  actions  as  described  above  were  not  reasoned 
out  and  followed  because  they  were  the  most  rational. 
I  observed  my  brother's  actions  at  all  these  points  and 
found  that  at  every  point  his  habits  were  different  from 
mine.  His  actions  were  as  reasonable  as  mine  but  not 
more  so.  Throughout  the  day  I  found  that  the  great 
majority  of  my  actions  and  thoughts  were  merely 
habitual  and  were  performed  without  conscious  desire 
or  deliberation. 

The  fact  of  habit  has  been  a  matter  of  marvel  and 
wonder  for  centuries,  but  an  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomenon has  been  left  to  modern  psychology.  If  I  bend 
a  piece  of  paper  and  crease  it,  the  crease  will  remain, 
even  if  the  paper  is  straightened  out  again.  The  paper 
is  plastic,  and  plasticity  means  simply  that  the  sub- 
stance offers  some  resistance  to  adopting  a  new  form, 
but  when  the  new  form  is  once  impressed  upon  it,  it 
retains  it.  Some  effort  is  required  to  overcome  the 
plasticity  of  the  paper  and  to  form  the  crease,  but 
when  the  crease  is  once  formed  the  plasticity  of  the 
paper  preserves  the  crease. 

There  is  a  most  intimate  relation  between  our  brains 
and  our  thoughts.  Every  time  we  think  there  is  a 
slight  change  taking  place  in  the  delicate  nerve  cells 
which  compose  a  large  part  of  the  brain.  Every  ac- 
tion among  these  cells  leaves  its  indelible  mark,  or 
"  crease,"  for  the  nerve  substance  is  plastic.    It  is  easy 


HABIT  217 

for  the  paper  to  bend  where  it  has  been  creased  and 
it  is  likewise  easy  for  action  to  take  place  in  the  brain 
where  it  has  taken  place  before.  That  is  why  it  is  so 
easy  to  think  our  old  habitual  thoughts  and  why  it 
is  so  hard  to  think  new  thoughts  or  to  perform  new 
movements.  When  a  thought  has  been  thought  or 
an  action  performed  many  times,  the  crease  becomes 
so  well  established  that  thinking  and  acting  along  that 
crease  are  easier  than  other  thoughts  or  actions,  and  so 
these  easier  ones  are  said  to  have  become  habitual.  In 
a  very  real  sense  the  thoughts  and  the  actions  form  the 
brain,  and  then  when  the  brain  is  formed  its  plasticity 
is  so  great  that  it  determines  our  future  thinking  and 
acting. 

This  is  well  shown  in  the  case  of  language.  It  is 
ordinarily  true  that  no  one  ever  learns  a  language  after 
he  is  twenty-five  years  old  so  well  that  he  can  speak  it 
without  an  accent.  As  far  as  language  is  concerned  a 
person  seems  to  be  fixed  or  creased  by  the  time  he  is 
twenty-five  and  he  can  never  get  rid  of  his  former 
habits  of  speech.  Few  men  ever  learn  to  dress  well 
unless  they  have  acquired  the  art  in  their  youth.  We 
all  know  men  who  have  acquired  wealth  in  middle  life 
and  who  have  tried  to  be  good  dressers,  but  in  vain. 
They  go  to  the  best  tailors,  but  something  about  them 
betrays  their  former  habits.  In  all  these  things  we  see 
that  we  first  form  our  brains,  and  then  when  they  are 
once  formed  (creased)  they  determine  what  we  shall 
do  and  be. 

This  relationship  of  the  mind  to  the  brain  in  the 
formation  of  habits  may  be  illustrated  by  the  paths  in 
a  forest.  In  the  densest  forest  there  are  still  some 
paths  where  you  can  walk  with  ease.  Some  person  or 
some  animal  walks  along  in  a  particular  direction  and 


218       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

breaks  down  some  of  the  weeds  and  briars.  Some  one 
else  follows,  and  every  time  that  any  one  walks  in  this 
path  it  becomes  easier.  Here  the  weeds  and  briars  are 
trampled  on  and  kept  out  of  the  way.  In  all  the  other 
places  the  briars  have  grown  up  and  made  it  almost 
impossible  to  walk  through  them. 

Every  thought  we  think  forms  a  pathway  through 
our  brains  and  makes  it  easier  for  every  other  similar 
thought.  We  think  along  certain  lines  and  that  is  the 
same  as  saying  that  we  have  formed  certain  pathways 
of  thought  through  our  brains.  It  is  easy  now  to  think 
these  habitual  thoughts,  but  to  think  a  new  thought  is 
like  beating  a  new  path  through  a  forest,  while  to  think 
along  the  old  lines  is  like  following  the  old  paths  where 
advance  is  easy.  A  habit  in  the  brain  is  like  a  path  in 
a  forest.  We  know  how  easy  it  is  to  take  the  old  path 
and  how  hard  it  is  to  form  a  new  one.  We  see  how  easy 
it  is  to  think  the  old  thoughts  and  to  do  the  old  things 
and  how  difficult  the  new  ones  are. 

As  habits  play  such  a  large  part  in  all  of  our  think- 
ing and  acting  it  is  important  that  the  advertiser  should 
understand  what  habits  are  and  how  he  can  make  the 
most  of  the  situation.  He  should  observe  the  working 
of  the  laws  of  habit  in  his  own  life.  If  he  could  realize 
that  everything  he  does  leaves  on  his  brain  an  im- 
pression which  is  to  be  a  determining  factor  in  all  his 
future,  he  would,  be  extremely  careful  as  to  what  he 
thinks  and  what  he  does,  even  in  private.  The  success 
of  the  advertiser  depends  to  an  exceptionally  great 
degree  upon  the  confidence  of  the  public.  If  we  know 
that  a  man  acts  uniformly  in  an  honest  manner  we  have 
such  confidence  in  him  that  we  call  him  an  honest  man 
and  we  believe  that  he  will  not  break  his  habit  of  honesty 
in  the  future  and  we  are  therefore  willing  to  trust  him. 


HABIT  219 

Thus,  whether  we  think  of  single  actions  as  determining 
our  future  characters  or  whether  we  think  of  them 
as  determining  the  estimation  in  which  we  shall  be  held 
by  others,  there  are  no  incentives  to  right  actions  com- 
parable with  the  inflexible  laws  of  habit  when  these  laws 
are  fully  appreciated. 

The  advertiser  is  likely  to  "  get  into  a  rut "  in  his  line 
of  thinking  and  consequently  in  his  presentation  of  his 
commodity  before  the  public.  He  should  see  to  it  that 
he  does  not  allow  his  habits  gradually  but  surely  to  make 
impossible  to  him  new  forms  of  expression  and  new  lines 
of  thinking  and  writing.  It  takes  great  and  determined 
effort  to  overcome  an  old  habit  or  to  form  a  new  one,  but 
the  advertiser  should  in  many  cases  make  the  necessary 
effort ;  otherwise  he  is  doomed  to  become  an  "  old  fogy.'' 

The  public  which  the  advertiser  addresses,  is  sub- 
ject to  the  same  laws  of  habit  as  the  advertiser.  Each 
of  the  potential  customers  has  formed  a  rut  in  his  think- 
ing and  thinks  along  that  particular  line  or  lines.  The 
advertiser  must  know  his  customers.  He  must  know 
their  habits  of  thought,  for  it  is  too  difficult  to  attempt 
to  get  them  to  think  along  new  lines.  He  must  present 
his  commodity  in  such  a  way  that  the  readers  can  under- 
stand it  without  being  compelled  to  think  a  new  thought. 
The  advertisement  should  conform  to  their  habitual 
modes  of  thought,  and  then  the  customers  can  read  it 
and  understand  it  with  ease. 

Habit  gives  regularity  and  persistence  to  our  actions. 
Some  people  have  formed  the  habit  of  looking  at  the 
last  pages  in  magazines  before  they  look  at  the  others. 
Some  people  look  more  at  the  right  page  than  at  the  left. 
Some  glance  first  at  the  top  of  the  page,  and  if  that 
does  not  look  interesting  the  page  is  passed  by  without 
a  glance  at  the  bottom  or  middle.    The  wise  advertiser 


220       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

is  always  alert  to  detect  these  habits  and  to  profit  by 
his  discovery. 

When  game  is  plentiful  and  hunters  few,  any  marks- 
man may  be  successful  in  bagging-  game.  As  soon, 
however,  as  competition  becomes  keen  only  that  marks- 
man is  successful  who  understands  the  habits  of  the 
game  sought  and  who  plans  his  method  of  approach 
according  to  the  habits  of  the  game.  When  adver- 
tising was  more  primitive  than  it  is  to-day  and  when 
competition  was  less  keen,  any  printer  or  reporter 
might  have  been  successful  in  advertising,  but  to-day 
no  man  can  be  successful  who  does  not  plan  his  cam- 
paign according  to  the  habits  of  the  public  which  he 
must  reach. 

The  action  of  habit  gives  great  value  to  advertising 
by  making  the  effect  of  the  advertisement  to  be  not 
merely  transient  but  permanent.  If  an  advertisement 
can  get  persons  started  to  purchasing  a  particular  brand 
of  goods  it  has  done  much  more  than  sell  the  goods  in 
the  immediate  present ;  for  when  people  do  a  thing  once 
it  is  easier  to  get  them  to  do  it  again,  and  habits  are 
formed  by  just  such  repetitions.  In  the  first  instance 
the  purchaser  may  have  been  induced  to  act  only  after 
much  hesitation,  but  after  a  few  repetitions  the  act 
becomes  almost  automatic  and  requires  little  or  no  de- 
liberation. Habitual  acts  are  always  performed  without 
deliberation,  and  there  is  a  uniformity  and  a  certainty 
about  them  which  differentiates  them  from  other  forms 
of  actions. 

One  great  aim  of  the  advertiser  is  to  induce  the  public 
to  get  the  habit  of  using  his  particular  line  of  goods. 
When  the  habit  is  once  formed  it  ^cts  as  a  great  drive- 
wheel  and  makes  further  action  easy  in  the  same  direc- 
tion.    It  often  takes  extensive  advertising  to  get  the 


HABIT  221 

public  into  the  habit,  and  the  amount  of  sales  may  not 
warrant  the  expense  during  the  first  year,  but  since  a 
habit  formed  is  a  positive  asset  such  campaigns  may 
be  profitable. 

The  advertiser  of  Pears'  Soap  quoted  a  great  truth 
when  he  put  this  at  the  head  of  his  advertisement,  "How 
use  doth  breed  a  habit.''  If  he  could  by  advertising  get 
persons  to  using  Pears'  Soap  he  would  get  them  into 
the  habit  of  using  it,  and  so  the  advertisement  would 
be  an  active  agent  in  inducing  the  customers  to  continue 
to  buy  the  soap  even  long  years  after  the  advertisement 
had  ceased  to  appear. 

Many  advertisers  work  on  the  theory  that  as  soon  as 
they  have  got  the  public  into  the  habit  of  using  their 
goods  they  can  stop  their  advertising  and  the  sales  will 
go  right  on.  There  is  much  truth  in  this  but  also  a 
great  error.  It  takes  so  much  effort  to  form  the  habit 
that  when  it  is  once  formed  it  should  be  made  the  most 
of.  This  can  best  be  done  by  continuing  the  advertising, 
thus  taking  advantage  of  the  habit  by  securing  prompt 
responses  and  at  the  same  time  taking  care  to  preserve 
the  habit. 


222       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 


XVIII 

THE  HABIT  OF  BEADING  ADVEB- 
TISEMENTS 

As  was  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  we  are  all 
creatures  of  habit.  One  of  the  habits  which  most  of  us 
have  acquired  is  that  of  reading  advertisements.  The 
fact  that  this  has  become  habitual  gives  it  a  permanence 
and  regularity  similar  to  that  of  our  other  habits.  Like 
other  habits,  too,  we  are  frequently  not  conscious  of  it. 
I  had  formed  a  fixed  habit  of  putting  on  my  right  sleeve 
before  the  left  one,  and  yet  for  years  I  did  not  know 
it — would  have  denied  it.  People  have  told  me  that 
they  never  look  at  the  advertising  pages  of  a  magazine, 
when,  in  fact,  they  scarcely  ever  take  up  a  magazine 
without  "glancing"  at  the  advertisements. 

One  lady  told  me  that  she  was  sure  she  never  paid  any 
attention  to  advertisements,  and  yet  within  an  hour  after 
making  such  a  statement  she  was  engaged  in  a  conver- 
sation about  articles  which  she  knew  only  from  state- 
ments appearing  in  the  advertising  columns  of  her 
periodicals.  I  observed  her  reading  magazines  and 
found  that  she  seldom  slighted  the  advertisements. 
Thousands  of  magazine  readers  read  advertisements 
more  than  they  are  aware. 

I  asked  several  professional  advertising  men  as  to 
the  number  of  persons  who  read  advertisements  and  the 
time  which  people  in  general  devote  to  them.  Some  of 
these  men  assured  me  that  all  persons  who  pick  up  a 
magazine  look  at  the  advertisements,  and  that  they  put 


READING  ADVERTISEMENTS  223 

in  as  much  time  in  reading  them  as  they  do  in  reading 
the  body  of  the  magazine.  I  felt  convinced  that  the  ad- 
vertising men  were  as  wide  of  the  mark  as  the  group  first 
mentioned.  It  is  not  possible  to  find  out  how  much  other 
people  read  advertisements  by  observing  one's  self,  by 
asking  personal  friends,  or  by  asking  those  engaged 
in  the  business  of  advertising.  To  know  whether  people 
in  general  read  the  advertisements  or  not  it  is  necessary 
to  watch  a  large  number  of  persons  who  are  reading 
magazines,  to  keep  an  accurate  account  of  the  number 
who  are  reading  the  advertisements  and  of  those  who 
are  reading  the  articles  in  the  body  of  the  maga- 
zine. The  observation  should  be  made  on  different 
classes  of  persons,  in  homes,  clubs,  libraries,  on  trains — 
wherever  and  under  whatever  conditions  people  are  in 
the  habit  of  reading  publications  whkh  contain  adver- 
tisements. 

Some  months  ago  I  visited  the  reading-room  of  the 
Chicago  Public  Library.  ^  In  this  room  several  hundred 
men  are  constantly  reading  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines— principally  magazines.  At  almost  any  hour  of 
the  day  one  hundred  men  may  be  found  there  reading 
magazines.  There  is  a  very  large  number  of  magazines 
to  choose  from,  the  chairs  are  comfortable  and  the  light 
is  good.  In  front  of  some  of  the  chairs  are  tables  on 
which  the  magazine  may  be  rested.  There  are  no  con- 
veniences for  answering  a  mail-order  advertisement  at 
once,  but  that  might  not  detract  from  the  reading  of 
such  advertisements.  Some  of  the  men  who  read  there 
have  but  a  few  minutes  to  stay,  while  others  are  there 
to  spend  the  day.  As  I  looked  over  the  room  to  see  how 
many  were  reading  advertisements,  it  seemed  to  me  that 
a  large  part  of  them  were  thus  engaged. 

To  know  just  how  many  are  reading  at  any  particular 


224       THE   PSYCHOLOGY  .  OF   ADVERTISING 

moment,  the  following  plan  of  investigation  was  fol- 
lowed. I  began  at  the  first  table  and,  unobserved  by  the 
readers,  turned  my  attention  to  the  first  man.  If  he  w^as 
reading  from  the  body  of  the  magazine,  I  took  what 
data  I  wanted  from  him,  jotted  them  down  in  my  note- 
book and  then  turned  to  his  neighbor  and  took  the  data 
from  him,  etc.  A  man  was  reported  as  reading  the  ad- 
vertisements if  he  was  reading  them  the  very  first 
moment  I  turned  my  attention  to  him„  In  every  case 
this  first  observation  determined  the  points  in  question. 
Thus,  if  I  turned  my  attention  to  a  man  who  was  looking 
at  the  last  page  of  the  advertisements,  and  if  the  very 
next  moment  he  turned  to  the  reading  matter,  he  was 
still  reported  as  reading  advertisements.  On  the  other 
hand,  tf  at  my  first  observation  he  was  just  finishing  his 
story  in  the  body  ©f  the  magazine  and  if  during  the  next 
few  minutes  he  was  engaged  in  reading  advertisements, 
he  was  still  reported  as  not  reading  advertisements.  By 
this  system  the  same  results  are  secured  as  we  should 
get  by  taking  a  snap-shot  of  the  room.  We  get  the  exact 
number  who  are  reading  advertisements  at  any  moment 
of  time.  Where  there  was  a  single  column  of  advertise- 
ments next  to  a  single  column  of  reading  matter  at 
which  the  subject  was  looking,  it  was  sometimes  impos- 
sible to  tell  what  he  was  reading.  In  all  cases  of  doubt 
the  man  was  not  counted  at  all.  There  were,  however, 
but  few  such  cases. 

I  made  six  visits  to  the  library,  going  on  different 
days  of  the  week,  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and  dif- 
ferent hours  of  the  day.  At  each  visit  I  made  observa- 
tions on  one  hundred  men  w^ho  were  reading  magazines. 
Of  the  first  hundred  observed,  eighty-eight  were  reading 
from  the  body  of  the  magazine  and  twelve  were  reading 
advertisements.    Of  the  second  hundred,  six  were  read- 


READING  ADVERTISEMENTS  225 

ing  advertisements.  Of  the  third  hundred,  fifteen  were 
reading  advertisements.  Of  the  fourth  hundred,  six- 
teen were  reading  advertisements.  Of  the  fifth  htindred, 
only  five  were  reading  advertisements.  Of  the  sixth 
hundred,  eleven  were  reading  advertisements.  Making 
a  summary  of  the  six  hundred  magazine  readers,  I  found 
sixty-five  reading  advertisements  and  four  hundred  and 
thirty-five  reading  from  the  body  of  the  magazine.  That 
is  to  say,  10%  per  cent,  of  all  the  men  observed  were 
reading  advertisements. 

At  my  request  a  gentleman  made  similar  tests  at  the 
same  library,  and  his  final  results  were  in  remarkable 
harmony  with  those  given  above.  Of  all  the  men  he  ob- 
served, exactly  ten  per  cent,  were  reading  advertise- 
ments. 

The  fact  that  only  ten  per  cent,  of  the  men  were  read- 
ing advertisements  at  any  one  point  of  time  is  not  at  all 
equivalent  to  saying  that  only  one-tenth  of  them  read — 
or  glanced  at — the  advertisements.  A  large  part  of 
them  turned  over  the  advertising  pages,  but  they  turned 
them  hastily  and  did  not  stop  to  read  them  unless  in 
some  way  they  were  particularly  interesting.  Some  of 
the  men  were  looking  at  the  pictures  in  the  advertising 
pages;  some  of  them  were  glancing  at  the  display  and 
reading  nothing  which  was  not  particularly  prominent ; 
others  were  reading  the  complete  argument  of  the  adver- 
tisement. As  far  as  I  could  tell,  most  of  those  who  were 
looking  through  the  advertisements  were  not  engaged 
in  any  serious  attempt  to  understand  the  argument,  and 
were  reading  in  a  hasty  and  indifferent  manner.  In- 
deed, it  was  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  that  any 
advertisement  was  read  from  beginning  to  end. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  the  data  thus  far  secured  are 
not  sufficient  for  any  generalization  as  to  the  exact  time 


226       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

or  proportion  of  time  which  the  general  public  devotes 
to  the  advertising  columns  of  periodicals.  It  is  quite 
generally  believed  that  women  read  advertisements  more 
than  men,  but  in  all  the  tests  referred  to  above,  the  data 
were  secured  only  from  men.  In  the  second  place,  it  is 
true  that  the  regular  subscribers  to  periodicals  read 
them  more  nearly  from  cover  to  cover  than  readers  who 
drop  into  a  library  to  read.  Magazine  readers  on  a  train 
frequently  have  but  a  single  copy  of  a  magazine  at  hand, 
and  as  trips  are  usually  somewhat  prolonged,  the  trav- 
eler frequently  not  only  reads  the  text  matter,  but  reads 
many  of  the  advertisements  completely.  Another  ele- 
ment which  enters  into  the  question,  as  here  investi- 
gated, is  found  in  the  fact  that  among  such  abundance 
of  periodicals  the  reader  becomes  somewhat  bewildered, 
tries  to  glance  through  many  papers  and  does  not  read 
so  carefully  as  he  would  ordinarily  do  under  other  cir- 
cumstances. Under  these  circumstances  the  data  at 
hand  cannot  show  more  than  certain  general  tendencies 
and  certain  specific  facts  as  to  how  one  class  of  readers 
is  in  the  habit  of  reading  the  advertisements  in  maga- 
zines under  the  conditions  mentioned  above. 

The  tendency  to  rush  through  the  advertising  jDages  of 
magazines,  which  was  so  clearly  present  in  the  Chicago 
Public  Library,  is,  I  believe,  a  general  tendencj^  Many 
people  turn  every  page  of  the  advertising  columns  of  a 
magazine  and  read  none  of  the  advertisements  through. 
It  would  not  be  fair  to  assume  from  the  data  on  hand 
that  the  average  magazine  reader  spends  tenfold  as  much 
time  on  the  text  as  he  does  on  tlie  advertisements,  but  it 
is  quite  certain  that  lie  spends  a  comparatively  short 
time  on  the  advertisements.  If  the  readers  in  libraries 
spend  anything  like  tenfold  as  much  time  on  the  text  as 
on  the  advertisements,  and  if  there  is  a  general  tendency 


READING  ADVERTISEMENTS 


227 


with  most  readers  to  rush  through  or  glance  at  the  ad- 
vertisements, it  behooves  the  advertiser  to  recognize  the 
actual  conditions  and  to  construct  his  advertisements 
according  to  the  habits  of  magazine  readers. 

If  the  presentation  of  his  goods  is  to  be  seen  but  a 
fraction  of  a  second,  that  fraction  must  be  made  to 
count.  The  cut  used  should  be  not  a  mere  picture,  but 
an  illustration.     The  cut  should  be  made  to  speak  for 


Wilson^s  Outside  Venetians  :!r^5 


I  used  as'a  blind  or  an  awnln^ajr 
I  be  pulled  up  out  of  (Iglit  ll_de- 
_                                                 sired.    Slats  open  and  close.  1  Adml(~alir> 
#Idudr»an. ^ronie SupportlngTapes,  non-corroding  and  most  durable.    Ordensboold  » placed  NOW fer  J  ' 

H'lLot-i  llmdz  hax(  b,fi  J„rnuh,.1  la  !),,■)„„„„  cf  Charity  Lanur,  J.  P.  Morpan.  A.G. 
P'ar.dtrMi,  Cii'fUt  Ma,  lay,  i/'«  C.  H'hiln,,,  ff  M.  FUghr,  Mr,.  R.  Cambrtll,  J.  Sj 
Kinntdf,    C.  ttJ/arJ  £U,r,  Jam(t  C-Cctiali^  O.  Harriman,  Jr,  anijnan/  otktrt\ 


WoRTiii.iJiO PARTmovg f,r cHmfHfTiia Rfiioois';  nrncuB  t.^^ nnT 

- ""f  Hrii.i.i\os. « ARtHnt 8S3  .«*  rr 

ARnKO(iis>iiji<!£jl.«CK>- 


Up  J 
ROllIKO  8TE»t  8HrTtl!R3^ 

"  -svtRiiioescRirnjjN,   ' 


W.lioo'i  Pijiia  Blinds  R«IIIa»  Sl«il  DW) 

J.  0.  WILSON  CO.,  5  West  29th  St.,  New  York 

No.  1. — An  illustration  that  illustrates. 


itself  and  to  tell  the  story  so  distinctly  that  at  a  glance 
the  gist  of  the  advertisement  is  comprehended.  Thus, 
in  the  advertisement  of  Wilson's  Outside  Venetians  (No. 
1),  reproduced  herewith,  the  illustration  shows  just  how 
the  ware  looks  and  what  it  is  good  for.  Even  in  the  most 
hasty  glance  the  reader  is  enabled  to  get  a  good  idea  of 
the  appearance  and  use  of  this  commodity.  If  he  is  in- 
terested in  such  goods  at  all,  this  knowledge  will  often 
lead  him  to  read  the  entire  advertisement.    If  he  passes 


228       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 


the  advertisement  with  a  single  glance  he  will  still  be 
affected  by  what  he  has  seen. 

The   advertisement   of   the   Venus   Drawing   Pencil, 
reproduced  herewith   (No.  2),  has  a  beautiful  picture, 


|M| 

ilPJ^^f^M 

|r| 

17  O-.'                                       ^ 

HRfl 

iVr;  '                          ^ 

|Kj^«MMi^ 

No.  2.- 


-This  illustration  tells  nothing  about 
the  goods  advertised. 


but  it  tells  nothing  about  the  goods  advertised.  I  know 
nothing  more  about  Venus  Drawing  Pencils  after  seeing 
this  picture  than  I  did  before.  Many  people  look  at  this 
picture  as  they  turn  the  pages  of  the  magazine,  and  yet 
they  never  discover  that  it  has  anything  to  do  with  pen- 
cils. They  remember  the  picture,  but  do  not  take  the 
trouble  to  notice  what  it  is  supposed  to  advertise. 

In  the  advertisement  reproduced  herewith,  the  type 
display,  "Advertising  Taught  by  Mail"   (No.  3),  gives 


Advertising 
Taught  by 


Send  today  for  free  test  blank  «rbfcb  enabfes  us 
to  advise  you  wbaC  your  prosp<^t3  are  for  success. 
This  (3  the  largest,  most  successful  and  most  tnfluea' 
tiai  institutioQ  ti^acbai^tbe  science,  art  andprac* 
tice  of  £ulvertisins.  Successful  stud'-nts  every- 
where earning  doame  previous  Incomes  who 
learned  at  home  by  giving  spare  time  OOly  for 
from  three  to  six  months. 

CHICAGO  COULTCe  OF  ADVERTISIMG 
eiO  WmiMttm  BuUdkag,      •     Chicago 

Owned  auid  condacted  by  10  lead-,       ^ 
ing    Chicago    Advertistng    meh.'       ^ 


No.  3. — The  display  type  gives  the  gist  of  the  business. 


BEADING  ADVERTISEMENTS  229 

the  gist  of  the  whole  matter.  Every  one  who  glances 
at  the  advertisement  understands  it.  If  he  sees  nothing 
more  than  the  display  of  type,  he  has  seen  enough  to 
understand  what  it  is  all  about  and  to  be  influenced  in 
favor  of  the  idea  there  presented.  The  next  time  he 
turns  over  the  pages  of  a  magazine  containing  this  ad- 
vertisement his  attention  will  be  attracted  by  this  famil- 
iar display.  Every  time  he  sees  this  advertisement  the 
suggestion  in  favor  of  it  becomes  stronger  and  yet  the 
reader  himself  may  not  be  conscious  of  such  influence. 

Wanted — 
Good  Neighbors 

Who  Value  Good  Neighbors  and  a  Good 
Neighborhood  About  Their  Summer  Homes.  . 

J[  want  a  man— or  rather  three  or  four  men  with  $3,000  to  $4,000 
each,  who  care  as  much  for  a  beautiful  summer  home  as  I  do,  td) 
fwrJte  me  and  let  me  tell  them  of  a  property  I  am  holdmg  in  the 
most  beautiful  part  of  Michigan,  for  myself  and  for  them,  I  an» 
not  a  real  estate  agent.  I  am  Just  what  I  here  profess  to  be.  a 
keeker  for  a  beautiful  summer  home  for  myself,  with  good  neigh- 
lx)rs. '  It  won't  cost  you  anything  to  write  to  me  and  let  me  send: 
you  some  photographs  and  details.  And  write  now,  please,  as  I 
do  not  care  to  advertise  this  again.  Ceorge  Mills  Rogers, 
ipoWashmgton  St.,  Chicago,  III. 

No.  4. — Lacking  in  indicativeness. 

In  the  advertisement  reproduced  herewith,  the  type 
display,  "Wanted — Good  Neighbors"  (No.  4),  does  not 
indicate  in  any  way  that  the. advertisement  is  one  of  real 
estate.  A  person  coi^ld  glance  at  this  advertisement  a 
score  of  times,  but  he  would  know  no  more  about  it  when 
he  had  seen  it  the  last  time  than  he  did  after  he  had 
seen  it  the  first  time.  It  has  nothing  to  say  to  the  casual 
reader,  and  would  be  weakened  rather  than  strength- 
ened by  repetition. 

The  type  display  should  not  be  merely  to  attract  at- 


230       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

tention,  but  must  tell  a  story  and  tell  it  quickly.  The 
display  type  and  the  picture  which  merely  attract  and 
do  not  instruct  are  in  many  cases  worthless,  for  in  at- 
tracting attention  to  themselves  they  divert  the  atten- 
tion from  the  thing  advertised.  The  picture  and  the 
meaningless  headline  will  interest  some  people  so  much 
that  they  will  stop  and  read  the  advertisement  through 
to  try  to  figure  out  what  it  all' means.  But  the  great 
majority  of  the  readers  will  not  stop  at  any  particular 
advertisement,  and  unless  they  get  something  at  a  glance 
they  get  nothing  at  all.  A  large  number  of  magazine 
readers  see  each  advertisement,  but  only  a  few  of  them 
will  stop  to  read  it  through.  The  advertiser  must  learn 
to  make  the  best  possible  use  of  this  casual  glance  of 
the  multitude.  Since  many  see  the  display  and  but  few 
read  the  argument,  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  con- 
struct a  display  that  will  not  merely  attract  attention 
to  itself,  but  be  so  constructed  that  it  will  beget  interest 
in  the  goods  advertised. 

Few  peoi^le  will  admit  that  they  are  greatly  influenced 
by  advertising.  I  have  discussed  the  question  with 
many  persons,  and  I  have  yet  to  find  the  first  one  who 
believes  that  he  is  materially  influenced  by  magazine  ad- 
vertising in  the  purchases  which  he  makes.  One  great 
cause  for  this  personal  delusion  is  found  in  the  habit 
which  they  have  formed  of  glancing  through  the  adver- 
tising pages.  They  turn  the  pages  rapidly  and  the  in- 
dividual advertisement  makes  so  little  impression  that 
it  is  not  remembered  by  them  as  having  been  seen  at  all. 

To  say  that  the  advertisement  is  forgotten  is  not 
equivalent  to  saying  that  it  has  not  made  a  lasting  im- 
pression. If  I  should  glance  at  the  same  advertisement 
in  different  magazines  for  each  month  for  a  number  of 
years,  it  is  quite  possible  that  these  single  glances  would 


READING  ADVERTISEMENTS  231 

be  forgotten.  I  might  not  remember  ever  having  seen 
an  advertisement,  and  yet  my  familiarity  with  the  goods 
advertised  might  seem  so  great  that  I  should  believe  that 
some  of  my  acquaintances  had  recommended  them  to  me 
or  that  I  had  used  the  goods  years  before. 

The  following  instance,  which  was  also  referred  to 
in  the  chapter  on  Suggestion,  illustrates  this  point  per- 
fectly. For  years  I  have  seen  the  advertisements  of  a 
certain  tailor.  Recently  I  entered  his  shop  and  ordered 
a  suit  of  clothes.  It  so  happened  that  the  proprietor,  who 
was  conducting  a  vigorous  advertising  campaign,  waited 
on  me  himself.  As  he  took  my  order  he  asked  me 
whether  he  had  been  recommended  to  me.  I  promptly 
replied  that  he  had.  I  then  began  to  try  to  recall  who 
had  recommended  him,  but  found  that  I  could  not  re- 
call any  such  recommendation.  I  had  seen  his  adver- 
tisement so  often  that  I  had  forgotten  the  particular  ad- 
vertisements, but  had  retained  the  information  which 
they  had  imparted.  I  had  evidently  confused  the  source 
of  my  information,  for  I  fully  believed  that  I  had  heard 
from  some  of  my  friends  that  this  particular  tailor  was 
especially  trustworthy.  If  he  had  asked  me  whether 
I  had  been  influenced  by  his  advertisements  or  not,  I 
might  have  answered  that  they  had  had  nothing  to  do 
with  it,  although  in  fact  they  were  the  only  source  of 
my  information  about  him  and  evidently  were  entirely 
responsible  for  the  sale. 

The  oftener  we  see  an  advertisement,  the  fewer  are 
the  chances  that  we  will  remember  where  we  saw  it,  but 
the  greater  becomes  our  feeling  of  familiarity  with  the 
goods  advertised.  As  soon  as  we  become  familiar  with 
the  goods  in  this  way  and  unmindful  of  the  source  of  the 
familiarity,  we  are  likely  to  be  subject  to  this  delusion 
of  supposing  that  we  have  heard  our  friends  recommend 


232       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

the  goods.  Most  people  still  are  prejudiced  against  ad- 
vertisements, and  would  not  purchase  the  goods  if  they 
realized  that  their  only  source  of  information  about  the 
firm  and  about  the  goods  was  the  advertisement ;  but  as 
soon  as  they  forget  the  source  of  the  information  they 
are  perfectly  willing  to  buy  the  goods,  although  they 
would  repudiate  the  statement  that  they  had  been  in- 
fluenced by  the  advertisements.  If  a  merchant  should 
ask  his  customers  whether  they  had  been  influenced 
largely  by  his  advertisements  or  not,  he  would  certainly 
receive  a  very  discouraging  report,  and  would  be  in- 
clined to  give  up  his  advertisements  as  worthless,  when, 
in  fact,  nothing  but  his  advertisements  had  induced 
them  to  come  to  his  store. 

The  habit  which  the  public  has  formed  of  reading  ad- 
vertisements so  hastily  makes  it  difficult  for  the 
advertisement  writer  to  construct  his  advertise- 
ments to  meet  the  emergency  of  the  case;  it  makes  it 
difficult  for  the  merchant  to  discover  the  direct  results 
of  his  advertising  campaign,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
makes  the  right  sort  of  advertising  peculiarly  effective, 
by  making  the  reader  more  susceptible  to  confusion  as 
to  the  source  of  his  information. 


THE  DIRECT  COMMAND  233 


XIX 

THE  DIEECT  COMMAND 

^'SiMON  says,  ^Thumbs  up !' ''  used  to  be  a  favorite 
game  with  children.  In  this  game  one  person  is  "it."  He 
turns  his  thumbs  up  and  calls  out,  "Simon  says,  ^Thumbs 
up !'  "  At  this  command  all  must  obey  and  turn  thumbs 
up.  The  one  who  is  "it"  next  calls  out,  "Simon  says, 
^Thumbs  down !'  "  This  is  the  signal  for  all  to  turn 
the  thumbs  down.  If,  however,  the  one  who  is  "it"  fails 
to  say  "Simon  says,"  he  must  not  be  obeyed,  and  the 
one  who  does  obey  becomes  "it"  himself.  "Simon  says" 
is  the  reason  for  obedience,  but  obedience  under  any 
other  condition  is,  in  a  mild  way,  punishable.  Those 
of  us  who  have  played  the  game  remember  that  it  was 
impossible  for  us  not  to  obey  the  command,  even  when 
the  "Simon  says"  was  left  out.  We  were  commanded 
to  turn  our  thumbs  up  or  down,  as  the  case  might  be, 
and  we  obeyed  before  we  thought  whether  the  reason  for 
obeying,  namely,  "Simon  says,"  was  given  or  not. 

When  in  our  early  "teens,"  my  brother  and  I  slept  in 
a  room  which  was  not  heated.  One  cold  winter  night 
my.  brother  went  to  bed  first,  succeeded  in  warming  his 
side  of  the  bed,  and  went  to  sleep.  About  an  hour 
afterward,  I  went  to  bed  and  was  appreciating  the 
fact  that  the  temperature  of  the  room  was  below  zero, 
when  the  thought  struck  me  to  play  a  trick  on  my 
brother.  I  merely  said,  "John,  get  over  on  the  other 
side  of  the  bed."  He  obeyed  immediately  and  rolled  over 
to  the  cold  side  of  the  bed.     I  began  to  laugh  and  John 


234       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

awoke.  It  is  needless  to  say  what  liappened.  He  knew 
that  he  had  obeyed  me  and  had  done  what  he  did  not 
want  to  do,  and  the  very  thought  angered  him.  • 

When  a  person  is  being  hypnotized  and  is  told  that 
he  cannot  and  must  not  open  his  eyes,  he  frequently 
struggles  against  the  suggestion,  but  at  last  succumbs 
to  it.  Certain  persons  are  so  refractory  that  they 
struggle  till  they  '^aw^aken"  themselves,  unless  they  are 
well  under  the  control  of  the  hypnotist.  All  persons, 
in  all  stages  of  hypnosis,  obey  the  commands  of  the 
hypnotist,  or  are  compelled  to  struggle, to  keep  from  it. 
The  natural  and  easy  thing  for  them  to  do  is  to  obey; 
the  unnatural  and  difficult  thing  is  to  keep  from  obeying. 

The  schoolteacher  commands  a  room  full  of  mis- 
chievous children  and  they  obey  her,  although  she  could 
not  convince  them  with  reason  or  compel  them  with 
force.    They  obey  simply  because  they  are  commanded. 

The  demagogue  uses  more  than  flattery,  threats,  and 
bribes;  he  commands  his  followers  absolutely  as  to  what 
they  shall  do  and  what  they  shall  not  do.  He  not  only 
says,  "Smith  is  your  friend  and  Jones  your  enemy,'' 
but  he  gives  the  command,  "Vote  for  Smith." 

When  certain  commands  have  been  obeyed  habitually, 
they  attain  such  a  power  over  our  wills  that  we  can 
scarcely  keep  from  obeying.  "There  is  a  story,"  says 
Professor  Huxley,  "which  is  credible  enough,  though  it 
may  not  be  true,  of  a  practical  joker  who,  seeing  a 
discharged  veteran  carrying  home  his  dinner,  suddenly 
called  out,  ^Attention!'  whereupon  the  man  instantly 
brought  his  hands  down,  and  lost  his  mutton  and  pota- 
toes in  the  gutter." 

This  soldier  obeyed  the  command  until  obedience  had 
become  almost  automatic.  He  obeyed  immediately  and 
without  any  consideration  whatever. 


THE  DIRECT  COMMAND  235 

In  the  game  alluded  to  ( "Simon  says,  ^Thumbs  up !'  " )  ? 
in  sleep,  in  hypnotism,  and  in  the  cases  of  the  teacher, 
the  demagogue,  and  the  soldier,  we  have  extreme  cases. 
Here  the  force  of  the  command  is  so  overpowering  that 
obedience  is  involuntary.  These  illustrations  are  useful 
in  indicating  the  real  nature  of  a  command,  and  in 
showing  how  effective  it  may  be  when  not  hindered  by 
competing  thoughts.  Although  commands  do  not  ordi- 
narily secure  involuntary  obedience,  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  in  us  all  to  obey  them.  We  have  probably 
all  felt  ashamed  of  ourselves  for  obeying  and  doing 
things  merely  because  we  w^ere  commanded  to  do  so. 
Stubbornness  is  the  exception  and  obedience  the  rule. 

It  often  happens  that  those  things  which  are  appar- 
ently the  most  simple  are,  in  fact,  the  most  difficult  to 
comprehend.  What  could  be  more  simple  than  the 
raising  of  your  hand  or  the  turning  of  your  head?  If 
you  attempt  to  analyze  the  process  involved  in  the 
simplest  movement  you  find  that  it  is  too  difficult  for 
your  comprehension.  We  do  know  something  of  the 
psychology  of  movement,  but  much  is  yet  to  be  found 
out  about  it.  When  I  want  to  raise  my  hand,  I  do  not 
say,  "Hand,  come  up !"  but  I  know  of  no  way  to  express 
what  goes  on  in  my  mind  better  than  that.  I  do  think 
of  the  movement  and  there  is  in  the  thought  itself  some- 
thing akin  to  a  command.  When  I  turn  my  thumbs  up, 
I  think  of  my  thumbs  turning  up,  and  the  thought  is 
the  command  which  I  give  to  my  thumbs  and  which 
they  obey.  If  the  thought  is  not  hindered  by  a  compet- 
ing thought, — ^if  it  is  allowed  to  take  its  own  course, — 
it  will  be  effective  in  raising  the  thumbs. 

In  a  direct  command  one  person  originates  the  thought 
and  suggests  it  to  another  person.  Thus  in  "Simon 
says,  ^Thumbs  up !'  "  I  suggest  the  thought  of  "thumbs 


236       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

up''  to  another  person.  The  thought  of  ^'thumbs  up" 
enters  his  mind — is  suggested  to  him, — and  unless  he 
hinders  the  action  of  the  thought  it  will  be  obeyed,  and 
up  will  come  his  thumbs.  One  advantage  of  the  direct 
command  is  that  it  suggests  a  thought  in  such  a  way 
that  it  will  bring  forth  the  action  suggested  unless  hin- 
dered by  a  previous  suggestion  or  by  an  action  originated 
by  the  person  himself.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  many 
actions  are  suggested  which  are  not  carried  out,  be- 
cause the  impelling  power  of  the  thought  is  not  suf- 
ficiently strong.  The  impelling  power  of  a  thought  is 
in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  attention  which 
it  secures;  and  so  the  impelling  power  of  a  command 
is  also  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  attention 
which  it  receives.  If  a  direct  command  could  occupy 
the  attention  completely,  it  would  be  the  best  possible 
form  of  argumentation,  because  it  puts  the  thought  in 
such  a  shape  that  its  impelling  nature  will  secure  the 
desired  results.  The  command  relieves  the  one  com- 
manded from  the  trouble  of  making  up  his  mind.  It 
makes  up  his  mind  for  him,  and  so  makes  action  easy. 

A  command  is  a  direct  suggestion,  and  as  such  has 
inherent  value.  It  is  the  shortest  and  simplest  form 
of  language,  and  is  the  easiest  to  be  understood.  It 
bears  with  it  authority  and  weight  by  expressing  action 
explicitly  and  distinctly.  It  calls  for  immediate  action 
and  meets  with  ready  response.  Mankind  as  a  whole 
is  influenced  more  by  commands  than  by  logical  proc- 
esses of  thought,  for,  as  previously  stated,  we  are  sug- 
gestible rather  than  reasonable.  The  command,  if  not 
obtrusive,  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  has  its  legitimate 
uses  in  advertisements  and  should  not  be  discarded,  as 
has  been  frequently  asserted.  We  are  not  only  sug- 
gestible and  obedient,  but  we  are  also  obstreperous, 


THE  DIRECT  COMMAND  237 

obstinate,  stubborn,  and  self-willed.  We  delight  in 
following  our  own  sweet  wills  and  object  to  having  any 
one  dictate  to  us.  There  must,  then,  be  certain  limita- 
tions put  on  the  use  of  commands.  They  must  be  used 
with  such  discretion  that  they  do  not  arouse  opposition ; 
otherwise  we  would  refuse  obedience,  even  if  it  were  to 
our  best  interests  to  obey. 

Although  we  do  obey  commands,  we  are  unwilling  to 
admit  it.  We  like  to  think  of  ourselves  as  independent 
beings,  who  act  only  because  it  is  the  reasonable  thing 
to  do  and  because  we  want  to.  It  is  very  difficult  for 
us  to  analyze  our  actions  and  to  give  the  motives  which 
have  prompted  us  to  do  many  of  the  things  that  we  have 
done.  We  act  from  habit,  imitation,  insufficient  reason, 
or  because  the  idea  of  the  action  has  been  suggested.  It 
is  but  rarely  that  the  ordinary  person  weigh's  all  the  evi- 
dence before  he  acts.  After  he  has  acted,  he  may  think 
over  the  motives  which  anight  have  prompted  him,  and 
may  even  deceive  himself  into  thinking  that  he  acted 
because  he  had  weighed  the  evidence,  when,  in  fact,  no 
such  motives  entered  his  mind  at  the  time  of  action. 

I  have  frequently  suggested  to  persons  that  they 
should  do  a  certain  thing.  At  the  time  they  have  re- 
fused to  do  it.  The  idea  was,  however,  implanted  in 
their  minds.  Later  they  have  done  exactly  what  I  had 
previously  suggested.  They  had  forgotten  who  had 
suggested  the  idea,  but  the  idea  itself  was  retained,  so 
they  were  perfectly  honest  in  supposing  that  they  had 
originated  the  thought,  and  that  they  had  performed 
the  deed  independently.  No  one  would  be  willing  to 
admit  that  he  had  used  Pears'  Soap  simply  because  he 
had  read  the  command,  "Use  Pears'  Soap."  It  is,  how- 
ever, quite  probable  that  many  persons  have  used  Pears' 
Soap  for  no  other  reason.  The  idea  of  using  the  soap  was 


238       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

suggested  to  them  in  that  form.  They  afterward  forgot 
where  they  had  received  the  thought,  and  believed  they 
had  originated  it  themselves. 

We  are  perfectly  willing  to  obey  as  long  as  we  are 
unconscious  of  the  fact.  But  let  any  one  see  that  he 
has  been  commanded  and  his  attitude  is  changed;  he 
becomes  obstinate  instead  of  pliant.  Every  wise  leader 
of  men  recognizes  this  fact.  He  does  not  cease  to  com- 
mand, but  he  covers  his  commands  in  such  a  way  that 
each  one  thinks  that  he  is  doing  just  what  he  wants 
to,  and  that  he  is  not  following  commands  at  all. 

The  correct  wording  of  the  command  is  a  matter  of 
importance,  yet  it  is  difticult  to  formulate  any  rules 
or  principles  to  guide  us  here.  Such  an  expression 
as  "Use  Pears'  Soap"  is  not  as  suggestive  as  "Let  the 
Gold  Dust  twins  do  your  work."  The  first  is  a  bald 
command  and  as  such  has  a  certain  value,  but  the 
second  has  the  added  value  of  supplying,  or  implying,  a 
reason  for  obedience.  It  is  implied  that  the  Gold  Dust 
twins  will  save  you  labor,  and  so  the  command  is  sup- 
plemented by  an  appeal  to  a  personal  interest. 

Furthermore,  this  latter  command  is  worded  in  such 
a  way  that  it  is  hardly  recognized  as  a  command  at 
all,  and  so  would  not  beget  opposition  on  the  part  of 
an;5C  one.  As  a  further  proof  of  the  importance,  but 
difficulty,  of  clothing  the  command  in  the  best  possible 
form,  take  the  "catch-lines"  of  four  advertisements  of 
advertising  schools  as  they  appear  in  the  magazines, 
which  are  reproduced  upon  the  following  page. 

The  first,  "Be  an  ad-writer,"  is  short,  but  rather  bald 
and  indefinite.  The  second,  "Learn  to  be  an  ad  writer," 
suggests  that  I  should  become  something,  and  implies 
that,  by  a  process  of  learning  in  connection  with  their 
school,  this  end  could  be  attained.     The  third,  "Learn 


THE  DIRECT  COMMAND 


239 


to  write  advertisements,"  suggests  that  I  should  learn 
to  do  something,  and  implies  that  I  could  learn  this  by 
a  course  of  instruction  at  their  school.  Personally, 
learning  to  do  seems  more  definite  than  learning  to 
become^  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  it  would  impress 


[Be  an  aa'Wi'iier\ 

Learn  to  be  an  Ad  Writer 


LEARN  TO  WRITE 
ADVERTISEMENTS 


AflYertisingWritinflTauglii 


No.  1 


others  differently.  The  fourth,  "Advertising  writing 
taught,''  is  not  a  command,  and  seems  to  me  to  be  much 
inferior  to  the  preceding  ones.  It  supplies  me  with  cer- 
tain information,  but  does  not  help  me  to  make  up 
my  mind  to  take  the  course  at  their  school.  It  informs 
me  of  the  fact  that  they  teach  advertising,  but  has 
nothing  to  say  about  action  on  my  part.  To  have  action 
in  another  person  suggested  is  not  so  impressive  as 
it  is  to  have  my  own  action,  or  action  on  my  part,  sug- 
gested. The  direct  personal  element  is  lacking  in  the 
last,  which  is  present  in  the  first  three. 

As  the  young  man  reads  over  these  four  displays  his 
attention  will  certainly  be  drawn  more  forcibly  by  the 
first  three  than  by  the  last  one.     It  might  be  question- 


240       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

able,  however,  which  one  of  the  first  three  would  appeal 
most  to  him.  "Learn  to  write  advertisements''  appeals 
to  me  most  strongly,  and  would  probably  appeal  to 
more  persons  than  any  of  the  others. 

The  value  of  the  form  of  expression  in  the  headlines 
is  clearly  seen  when  we  read  over  the  commands  which 
were  used  as  display  in  American  Magazine  for  April, 
1920.  Some  are  good  and  some  are  poor,  as  will  be 
recognized  by  every  one  who  reads  the  list.  Taking 
them  in  the  order  in  which  they  appeared,  they  are  the 
following : 

"Learn  to  talk  convincingly." 

"Let  me  tell  you." 

"Send  no  money." 

"Look  for  the  red-and-white  label." 

"Remember  these  three." 

"Take  a  tip  from  Robert  Burns." 

"Your  signature  represents  you.     Do  it  in  Carter's." 

"Visit  your  Dayton  dealer." 

"Mail  this  coupon  to-day." 

"Save  the  surface  and  you  save  all." 

"Use  Kyanize." 

"Be  financially  independent." 

"Use  this  chest  free." 

"Learn  languages  by  listening." 

"Let  sound  investments  guard  your  home." 

"Let  your  mirror  tell." 

"Start  the  season  right." 

"Make  money  writing." 

"Copy  this  sketch." 

"Send  for  these  good  books." 

"Don't  rub  it  in." 

"Go  to  a  legitimate  dealer." 

"Keep  the  toilet  spotless." 


THE  DIRECT  COMMAND  241 

"Plan  for  good  roads  now.'^ 

"Have  cozy  rooms  for  $17  a  day." 

"Let  me  send  you  free  proof." 

"Follow  the  arrow." 

"Be  well." 

"Become  a  lawyer." 

"Learn  how  to  write  short  stories." 

"Learn  law." 

"Be  a  banker." 

"Enter  a  business." 

"Be  a  master  of  traffic  manager." 

"Ride  a  bicycle  to  work." 

"Learn  piano-tuning." 

"Avoid  embarrassment." 

"Buy  it  by  name." 

"Save  on  your  new  home." 

"Don't  grope  for  words." 

"Dye  old  dress  material." 

"Speak  a  foreign  language." 

"Cultivate  your  beauty." 

"Become  a  nurse." 

"Don't  say  TTnderwear' — say  'Munsingwear.' " 

As  we  see  from  the  examples  given  above,  the  value  of 
a  command  is  dependent  upon  the  way  in  which  it  is 
expressed. 

Another  factor  of  even  greater  importance  than  the 
verbal  expression  is  the  personality  of  the  one  giving 
the  command.  The  spoken  command  is  enforced  by  the 
personality  of  the  speaker  to  an  extent  impossible  in 
written  commands.  The  difference  is,  however,  not  so 
great  as  might  be  supposed.  Van  Dyke  expressed  a 
truth  when  he  said,  "Help  me  to  deal  very  honestly  with 
words  and  people,  for  they  are  both  alive."  The  person 
who  can  move  men  by  spoken  words  can  move  them  by 


241'       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

written  words.  This  is  so  true  that  many  have  prophe- 
sied that  the  press  would  render  the  preacher  and  the 
orator  useless.  The  printed  page  is  a  living  force  which 
is  more  appreciated  to-day  than  ever  before.  There  are 
men  who  are  obeyed  whether  they  speak  or  write, 
whether  they  are  at  the  head  of  a  regiment  or  in  the 
privacy  of  their  own  homes,  whether  they  are  address- 
ing their  employees  in  person  or  presenting  certain  lines 
of  action  to  the  public  by  means  of  printed  advertise- 
ments. Certain  persons  can  command  us  and  we  obey 
readily,  but  if  the  same  commands  were  given  by  other 
persons,  we  should  regard  it  as  presumptuous  and  re- 
fuse obedience.  A  firm  that  is  just  beginning  its  first 
advertising  campaign  does  not  secure  as  much  atten- 
tion to  its  advertisements  as  the  older  firms.  Further- 
more, reliable  firms  which  are  well  established  and  well 
known  through  advertising  could  give  commands  with 
impunity  which  would  injure  a  new  or  unknown  firm. 

Persons  who  are  used  to  obeying  take  obedience  as 
a  matter  of  course  and  obey  almost  from  second  nature 
or  instinct.  Those  who  are  not  used  to  being  commanded 
are  more  inclined  to  resent  the  attempt  and  so  refuse 
to  obey,  even  if  the  command  is  in  accord  with  their 
interests,  and  if  they  had  at  first  been  at  the  very  point 
of  obeying.  A  form  of  expression  which  would  prove 
highly  successful  with  one  class  of  society  might  fail 
with  another  class.  Commands  would  have  a  greater 
efficiency  in  cheap  than  in  higher-priced  periodicals, 
because  the  poorer  classes  are  more  in  the  habit  of  obey- 
ing commands.  They  are  more  in  the  habit  of  doing 
things  that  are  directly  suggested  to  them.  All  classes 
of  society  are  moved  by  a  direct  command  if  it  is  prop- 
erly worded,  and  if  it  appears  in  their  favorite  or  most 
highly  appreciated  publication. 


THE  DIRECT  COMMAND  243 

The  function  of  the  direct  command  in  advertisements 
is  twofold — to  attract  attention  and  to  beget  immediate 
action. 

There  is  nothing  which  attracts  the  attention  so  much 
as  movement  or  action.  When  we  want  to  attract  the 
attention  of  a  friend,  we  wave  to  him  instinctively.  We 
know  that  he  will  see  the  wave  of  the  hand  or  of  the 
handkerchief  when  he  would  not  notice  us  at  all  apart 
from  such  movements.  Our  eyes  are  so  constructed  that 
we  can  distinguish  a  movement  of  an  object  before  we 
are  able  to  distinguish  the  object  itself.  Movements 
please  and  attract  us  in  whatever  form  they  may  be 
presented.  A  shop  window  that  has  in  it  a  live  animal 
or  anything  else  that  moves  will  attract  the  attention 
of  the  pedestrian  as  he  passes  by.  A  command  ordi- 
narily calls  for  action.  As  we  read  a  command  we 
think  of  the  action  suggested  and  it  attracts  our  atten- 
tion in  much  the  same  way  that  actual  movements  do. 
In  the  first  case  we  see  with  the  imagination  what  we 
see  in  the  second  case  with  the  sense  of  sight. 

A  command  in  good  display  type  at  the  beginning  of 
an  advertisement  may  express  in  a  few  words  the  intent 
of  the  entire  advertisement.  It  expresses  it  in  such 
a  living,  moving  manner  that  it  attracts  our  attention 
and  makes  us  feel  in  sympathy  with  it,  so  that  we  feel 
like  doing  what  is  suggested  at  once.  This  tendency 
to  action  on  our  part  brings  us  into  sympathetic,  per- 
sonal relation  with  the  advertisement,  and  so  gets  us 
interested  enough  in  the  advertisement  to  start  us  to 
reading  it.  The  argument  should  be  so  constructed 
that  it  brings  us  into  closer  relationship  with  the  prop- 
osition offered.  It  should  take  us  into  the  confidence 
of  the  firm  and  make  us  feel  that  the  firm  back  of  the 
advertisement  can  be  trusted.     We  then  feel  in  sym- 


244       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF    ADVERTISING 

pathy  with  the  offer  made  by  the  firm,  our  self-will  is 
suspended,  and  we  are  in  a  condition  to  do  w^hat  is  sug- 
gested. The  argument  may  have  been  extensive,  the 
illustrations  may  have  been  interesting  and  suggestive, 
but  now  what  is  wanted  is  immediate  action.  The 
advertisement  should  focus  at  this  point.  An  attempt 
should  be  made  to  hold  our  attention  to  what  is  de- 
sired of  us.  The  value  of  a  direct  command  at  this 
point  should  not  be  overlooked,  as  it  expresses  in  a 
few  w^ords  and  in  living  form  all  that  the  advertise- 
ment has  desired  to  bring  about.  It  sums  up  the  entire 
argument  and  puts  it  before  us  in  the  form  of  a  direct 
suggestion  to  action. 

Outdoor  advertising  must  of  necessity  be  very  brief 
and  very  suggestive.  There  is  no  opportunity  to  present 
extensive  arguments,  yet  something  must  be  done  to 
attract  attention  and  to  beget  immediate  action.  Direct 
affirmation  as  to  the  value  of  the  goods  offered  may,  in 
general,  be  the  most  effective  form  of  expression,  but 
the  direct  command  could  be  used  with  profit  because 
of  its  superior  value  in  attracting  attention  and  in  be- 
getting immediate  action. 


The  above  chapter  on  '^The  Direct  Command"  as  a 
form  of  argumentation  appeared  in  substantially  the 
present  form  in  Makings  Magazine.  Soon  after  its  publi- 
cation the  Editor  received  a  letter  from  the  Franklin 
Mills  Company,  saying  that  they  were  going  "to  try 
out  the  theory''  in  their  advertising.  Some  time  later 
the  following  letter  was  received,  stating  the  results 
of  their  experiment  with  the  advertisement  reproduced 
herewith  (No.  2)  : 


THE  DIRECT  COMMAND 


245 


We  wish  to  say  that  our  February  advertisement,  embodying 
"the  direct  command"  advised  by  Professor  Scott,  is  bringing 
far  greater  returns  than  any  advertisement  we  have  ever  before 
published,  and  this  is  surprising  in  the  face  of  the  fact  that 
the  public  are  overloaded  with  free  samples  of  hundreds  of 


No.  2 


cereals,  and  are  so  confused  thereby  that  they  hardly  know 
what  they  want. 

Another  instance  of  the  successful  application  of  this 
principle  appeared  in  a  recent  issue  of  Printers^  Ink.  It 
is  entitled,  "A  Story  of  Progress,"  and  gives  the  history 
of  the  wonderful  growth  of  the  Delineator: 

Then  advertising  was  used  in  dailies  and  magazines  through- 
out the  country.     Billboards  were  also  utilized  for   a  brief 


246       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

period,  cMefly  to  spread  the  well-known  catch-phrase,  "Just 
get  the  Delineators^  This  phrase  originated  with  Mr.  Thayer, 
who,  in  speaking  about  it,  said: 

"I  had  tried  more  than  a  year  to  hit  upon  a  suitable  phrase, 
but  nothing  would  come  to  me.  One  day  I  read  an  article  by 
Professor  Scott  in  Mahin's  Magazine,  in  which  he  showed  that 
if  the  words  'Cut  this  coupon  out  and  mail  it  to-day'  were  used 
instead  of  'Use  this  coupon'  there  would  be  a  larger  number 
of  replies.  It  is  his  theory  that  people  will  follow  a  definite 
direction  of  this  sort,  and  the  theory  appealed  to  me.  So  I 
formulated  my  phrase  in  the  belief  that  its  suggestion  would 
be  followed,  especially  by  women.  Results  have  proved  that  it 
is  an  effective  phrase.  To  my  own  personal  knowledge  the 
catch-line  has  tantalized  even  men  until  they  bought  copies  to 
see  the  publication  for  themselves." 


VALUE  OF  THE  KETURN  COUPON    247 


XX 

THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  VALUE  OF  THE 
RETUEN  COUPON. 

The  return  coupon,  which  is  the  product  of  a  long 
evolution  in  which  necessity  and  practical  experience 
were  the  prime  moving  factors,  has  of  recent  years  been 
greatly  improved  by  those  who  have  been  able  to  analyze 
it  and  to  appreciate  its  possibilities.  Before  the  days  of 
the  coupon,  the  advertiser  met  with  great  difficulty  in 
trying  to  keep  tab  on  the  various  publications  in  which 
he  advertised.  The  "Please  mention  this  magazine^'  was 
frequently  disregarded,  and  so  the  idea  was  conceived 
of  having  something  returned  to  the  advertiser  which 
would  indicate  the  publication  in  which  the  sender  had 
seen  the  advertisement.  At  first  it  was  the  whole  adver- 
tisement which  was  to  be  returned,  and  we  find  at  the 
end  of  some  of  the  old  advertisements  this  statement, 
"Please  cut  this  advertisement  out,"  etc.  Then  it  was 
conceived  that  it  was  not  necessary  to  return  the  entire 
advertisement,  but  merely  a  blank  for  the  name  and 
address,  and  so  the  coupon  was  evolved. 

The  return  coupon  was,  then,  in  the  beginning  a  keying 
device  and  was  not  intended  to  have  any  value  as  a 
means  of  securing  replies.  It  was  not  to  induce  the 
reader  to  answer  the  advertisement,  but  was  intended  as 
an  assistance  to  the  advertiser  in  keeping  tab  on  the 
various  publications  in  which  he  advertised.  Later  it 
was  discovered  that  the  coupon  had  a  greater  value  than 
had  been  supposed — that  it  was  in  itself  a  strong  induce- 


248       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

ment  to  action  and  that  its  value  was  therefore  psycho- 
logical. The  coupon  appeals  directly  to  the  reader  and 
induces  more  to  answer  the  advertisement  than  would 
do  so  if  the  coupon  were  not  there. 

One  psychological  value  of  the  return  coupon  is  that 


No.  1 


it  attracts  attention.  In  their  original  form  these 
coupons  (No.  1)  were  something  different  from  any- 
thing that  had  previously  appeared  in  advertisements, 
and  attracted  attention  by  way  of  contrast  to  ordinary 
advertisements.  They  also  attracted  attention  because 
the  ruled  blank  lines  and  open  spaces  were  in  contrast 
with  the  rest  of  the  advertisement.  The  coupon  is  so 
familiar  now  that  it  does  not  offer  so  strong  a  contrast 
to  other  advertisements  as  formerly,  but  is  still  in  con- 
trast to  the  rest  of  the  advertisement  in  which  it  is  con- 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON 


249 


tained.  To  make  this  latter  contrast  stronger,  the  whole 
advertisement,  as  well  as  the  coupon  itself,  has  been 
greatly  modified.  The  chief  alteration  was  in  the  cou- 
pon, which  was  changed  from  the  square  or  oblong  to  the 
triangle  (No.  2).  All  the  lines  of  reading  matter  are 
horizontal,  but  the  little  three-cornered  coupon  has  one 
or  more  oblique  lines,  and  the  oblique  lines  run  in  a 


fThe  accompanying  cut  is 

.A 

a  reproduction  of  a  coupon                                   A                  \ 

attached  to  an  advertise-                               A/ 

ment    in    the    New    York                            /'Z> 

Herald  for  Oct.  23,   1899.  •                     /"U 

Mr.    Ralph    Tilton    states                    /,//  ^ 
that  this  was  the  first  tri-                 //Y      f ) 
angular  coupon  ever  used.]             Ay/       M 

/^     ©QDti 

/^    T11q3s 

///     (ScDOPmotP 

y///     df  SBd  mi  irt  <h.  bi.nH 

/y//     •"«  m.ll  »  •<.-<».»  to 

AZ^jim^  ^mrn^mm 

X///                Kkw    YCmK'  CITY. 

/,//  youm.T..n<l m.  lllo.lr.ted bookl.l 

,  .^,hr,f:Xd'^T.?rVuSS-oVfhrbu;iS>'j;;'S 

_/^'//  "* "" '"  *""  '"'"'* 

jr^y  MAn^ -..»..~~. 1..~. " 

y^^^i^i.-.'^ns «  »ir  m  ts  %m 

f 

No.  2 

different  direction.    This  brings  it  into  contrast  with  the 
rest  of  the  advertisement. 

I  asked  a  large  group  of  persons  to  think  of  some 
number.  Very  many  more  of  them  thought  of  three 
than  of  any  other  number.  I  have  asked  other  groups 
to  think  of  some  geometrical  figure,  and  more  think  of 
a  triangle  than  of  any  other  figure.  I  have  exposed,  for 
a  very  short  interval  of  time,  various  geometrical  figures, 
and  the  triangle  catches  their  attention  more  than  any 
other  figure.     The  number  three  and  a  figure  with  three 


250       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

sides  possess  a  peculiar  interest  for  us.  It  seems^  then, 
that  the  triangle  is  more  attractive  than  a  square,  and 
oblong,  or  parallel  lines,  and  so  it  attracts  our  atten- 
tion to  itself  and  indirectly  to  the  advertisement  in 


No.  3 


which  it  is  contained.  The  shape  of  the  entire  adver- 
tisement and  particularly  the  shape  of  the  border  has 
been  changed  to  make  the  contrast  with  the  three-cor- 
nered coupon  greater.  By  certain  leading  advertisers 
the  border  has  been  constructed  of  figured  designs  com- 
posed of  broken  curved  lines,  or  of  continuous  curved 


VALUE  or  THE  RETURN  COUPON   251 

lines,  or  else  the  border  has  been  discarded  entirely  (No. 
3).  These  changes  make  the  bold,  straight  lines  of  the 
coupon  stand  out  in  marked  contrast,  and  are  almost 
sure  to  attract  the  attention  as  one  turns  over  the  page. 
The  contrast  between  the  coupon  and  the  rest  of  the 
advertisement  (not  to  mention  the  contrast  with  other 
advertisements)  is  not  the  only  source  of  attention  value 
of  the  coupon.     A  second  attractive  feature  is  found  in 


One  dollar  is  all! 

A  single  DoIUf  (if  you  act  at  bntt)  is  all  it  will  cost  vou  to 
secure  possession  of  RIDPATH'S  History  of  the  World 


A  great  big  set  of  9  Royal  Octavo  volume* 

with  4  000  illustrations,  and  many 

maps  and  c6lor  plates. 

The  rest  you  pay 


F  you'd  like  to 


of  gra , ...^  ..„ 

10^7,  using  ihe  coupon  ia  the  comer. 

We've  a  pamphlet,  prepared  by  the  publishers  of  rtie  history,  which 
Idls  just  what  ibe  work  is,  how  it  came  to  be  written,  and  the  tort 
of  readers  it  aims  to  entertain  and  interest.     This  pamphlet  also 
conums  specimens  of   the  illustrations  and  feat  pages,  and  ii 
fOuYe  interested,  and  mail  us  the  coupon,  we'll  send  it  to  vottl 
btt  of  cost 

Reading  that  pamphlet  will  settle  in  your  mind,  < 
lor  all,  whether  you  need  the  history  or  not ;  and  you 
best  settle  it  ^0W,  for  this  is  our  last  aitvertlM- 
neat  of  Ridpatb'*  History  M  bait  prUe. 

«'*»*»"W&namake; 


No.  4 


the  direct  command  ordinarily  placed  between  the  body 
of  the  advertisement  and  the  coupon.  The  expressions 
"Cut  this  corner  off,''  "Cut  along  this  line,"  etc.,  have  a 
decided  value  in  attracting  attention.  ( See  chapter  on 
"The  Direct  Command  as  a  Form  of  Argumentation.'') 
Another  source  of  attention  value  in  this  kind  of  ad- 
vertising is  in  the  dotted  line  indicating  the  place  at 
which  the  coupon  should  be  cut  off.     This  dotted  line 


252       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

suggests  action,  and  as  such  is  interesting  and  attracts 
the  attention.  If  the  dotted  lines  could  give  the  impres- 
sion of  perforated  paper,  the  results  would  be  better. 
Where  possible  it  would  be  well  to  have  the  paper  per- 
forated along  the  line  where  the  coupon  is  to  be  torn 
ofe. 

Another  source  of  attention  value  in  this  kind  of  ad- 
vertising in  its  modified  form  is  found  in  the  devices 
employed  (No.  4)  to  direct  the  attention  to  the  dotted 
line  or  to  the  "Cut  this  corner  off.''  The  index  fingers, 
all  pointing  to  the  same  thing,  give  one  the  impression 
that  there  must  be  something  very  special  at  that  point, 
and  many  persons  look  to  see  what  the  fingers  are  point- 
ing at,  when  otherwise  they  would  pass  the  entire  adver- 
tisement by  without  noticing  it. 

In  addition  to  its  power  in  attracting  attention,  the 
return  coupon  has  a  further  psychological  value  in  that 
it  gives  the  reader  something  definite  mid  specific  to  do. 

I  have  frequently  observed  in  teaching  that  if  pupils  or 
students  are  given  definite  and  specific  tasks  to  perform, 
they  perform  them  with  alacrity.  If,  however,  the  tasks 
are  made  general  and  assigned  as  something  which  they 
might  do  sometime,  no  impression  is  made  on  their  minds 
and  nothing  is  done.  A  necessary  characteristic  of  a 
teacher  is  the  ability  to  make  his  students  know  just 
what  he  wants  them  to  do.  A  prime  requisite  of  an  ad- 
vertisement, when  direct  evidence  of  attention  is  desired, 
is  that  it  should  give  the  reader  something  definite  and 
specific  to  do  at  once,  i.e.^  that  the  reader  should  open  a 
correspondence  with  the  firm.  With  our  present  knowl- 
edge there  could  probably  be  no  better  way  of  making 
that  end  clear  than  by  the  use  of  the  return  coupon.  Its 
function  is  much  like  that  of  a  sun-glass.  The  rays  of 
the  sun  falling  on  a  piece  of  paper  will  warm  it,  but  will 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON    253 

not  cause  it  to  burn.  If  the  rays  are  allowed  to  shine 
through  the  sun-glass  and  to  focus  at  one  point  of  the 
paper,  the  whole  will  soon  be  ignited.  The  argument 
in  an  advertisement  may  be  good,  it  may  even  make  the 
reader  'Varm''  with  the  desire  to  secure  the  goods,  but 
his  desire  may  not  result  in  action.  The  heat  was  not 
focused  at  one  point.  The  return  coupon  concentrates 
all  this  desire  or  ^'warmth"  at  one  point;  it  overcomes 
procrastination  and  secures  the  necessary  action. 

An  additional  psychological  value  of  the  return  cou- 
pon is  that  it  makes  it  easy  to  answer  the  advertise- 
ment. 

There  are  persons  who  will  climb  the  Matterhorn 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  the  ascent.  There  are  those 
who  will  spend  hours  and  even  days  trying  to  solve 
difficult  puzzles.  These  are  but  apparent  exceptions 
to  the  universal  rule  that  mankind  as  a  class  prefers 
the  lipe  of  least  resistance.  We  desire  the  best  results, 
but  we  want  to  secure  them  with  the  least  possible  labor. 
We  refuse  to  take  two  steps  when  one  is  sufficient. 
Business  men  recognize  this  fact  and  place  their  mer- 
chandise where  it  can  easily  be  secured  by  the  buyer. 
They  choose  a  site  for  their  stores  where  they  will  be 
the  most  accessible.  They  arrange  their  goods  so  that 
they  may  be  most  easily  seen  and  secured  by  the  public. 
They  send  out  their  representatives  to  display  the  goods 
and  leave  nothing  to  the  purchaser  but  to  indicate  what 
he  wants.  In  short,  everything  possible  is  done  to  make 
it  easy  for  the  customers.  The  traveling  salesman  made 
it  so  easy  for  the  customer  that  he  undoubtedly  gave 
orders  for  goods  which  he  would  not  have  purchased  if 
he  had  been  obliged  to  go  after  them  or  even  to  write  a 
letter  for  them.  For  a  mail-order  house,  the  return 
coupon  supplements  or  takes  the  place  of  a  traveling 


254       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

salesman.  It  presents  itself  to  the  possible  customer, 
and  all  he  has  to  do  is  to  fill  it  out  and  return  it,  and  the 
goods  are  forthcoming.  Even  for  the  experienced  busi- 
ness man  it  is  easier  to  fill  out  a  blank  than  it  is  to  dic- 
tate or  write  a  letter.  But  all  are  not  experienced  busi- 
ness men.  There  are  those  who  make  good  customers, 
but  whose  only  formula  for  letter  writing  is,  ^'I  take 
my  pen  in  hand  to  let  you  know  that  I  am  well  and  hope 
that  this  will  find  you  the  same.''  For  such  a  person  to 
compose  a  business  letter  is  a  task  of  no  small  impor- 
tance. He  does  not  know  whether  to  begin  with  ''Dear 
Sir"  or  with  ''Gentlemen" ;  he  does  not  know  whether  he 
should  close  with  "Yours  truly"  or  "Affectionately 
yours."  The  betrayal  of  his  ignorance  and  the  effort  of 
composition  are  hindrances  of  such  magnitude  that  he  is 
frequently  deterred  from  securing  the  desired  goods.  To 
be  relieved  from  this  embarrassment  and  toil  is  for  him  a 
veritable  boon.  The  return  coupon  makes  answering 
easier  for  all,  whether  with  or  without  experience  in 
writing  business  letters.  It  makes  ansAvering  easy  not 
only  because  it  has  the  return  letter  already  composed, 
but  also  because  the  composed  letter  is  easily  accessible. 
Some  advertisers  do  not  seem  to  appreciate  this  latter 
advantage  and  so  allow  the  coupon  to  be  placed  near  the 
middle  of  the  page  and  on  the  inside  of  it — next  to  the 
binding.  The  following  reduced  reproduction  is  an 
example  of  such  a  blunder  ( No.  5 ) .  This  makes  it  un- 
necessarily difficult  to  get  at,  and  so  places  an  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  every  one  who  desires  to  answer.  Many 
would  surmount  the  difficulty,  but  some  would  not.  It 
certainly  is  bad  business  policy  to  put  such  a  needless 
obstruction  in  the  path  of  every  "would-be  customer." 
The  three-cornered  coupon  can  be  cut  or  torn  off  more 
easily  than  any  other.     If  placed  on  one  of  the  four  outer 


VALUE  OF  THE  EETURN  COUPON    255 

corners  of  a  publication  it  can  be  severed  with  a  single 
cut  of  the  scissors  or  torn  off  with  a  single  tear.  It  is 
more  accessible  than  it  would  be  if  in  any  other  shape ; 
it  makes  the  answering  of  the  advertisement  easy,  and  to 
that  extent  is  the  best  possible  shape  for  a  return  coupon. 


t5/)e  History  gf  tKe  World 


W  A  H 

HtKTATtTl  im 
•oriol  f 


.JfA 


No.  5 


The  task  recently  devolved  on  me  of  purchasing  a  baby 
carriage.  I  had  never  been  interested  in  them  before 
and  did  not  know  where  I  had  ever  seen  them  in  stores, 
and  so  did  not  know  where  I  should  go  to  secure  one. 
I  turned  at  once  to  the  advertisements  in  the  morning 
paper  and  saw  baby  carriages  advertised  at  a  certain 
down-town  store.  I  went  there  at  once  and  asked  the 
floor-walker  where  they  kept  them,  and  he  politely  in- 
formed me  that  they  did  not  handle  them.  I  assured  him 
that  I  had  seen  their  advertisement  in  the  paper  that 
morning  and  that  they  must  therefore  have  them.  He 
made  further  inquiries  and  found  that  they  did  have 
them,  and  I  secured  my  desired  article.  Having  seen  the 
advertisement  in  the  paper,  it  was  easy  for  me  to  find 
what  I  wanted.  All  advertisements  make  it  easy  for  the 
purchaser  to  know  where  the  class  of  goods  is  kept 
which  he  desires  to  secure.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that . 
one  of  the  great  functions  of  any  advertisement  is  in  this 


256       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

way  to  make  it  easy  for  the  purchaser  to  find  what  he 
wants.  The  coupon  has  the  additional  value  of  being  of 
such  a  nature  that  the  purchaser  can  secure  the  goods 
desired  without  going  out  after  them  and  even  without 
the  trouble  of  composing  and  writing  a  letter.  Some 
of  us  are  not  so  lazy  as  others,  but  we  are  all  procrastina- 
tors.  We  often  decide  that  we  want  a  thing,  but  we  put 
off  the  purchase  till  the  desire  has  gone  and  so  we  never 
secure  what  we  wanted.  Procrastination  is  so  easy  that 
we  put  off  till  to-morrow  what  would  cause  us  trouble 
to  do  to-day.  With  the  coupon,  the  task  of  ordering 
the  goods  is  so  easy  that  there  is  almost  no  excuse  for 
procrastination,  even  if  we  are  somewhat  lazy.  An  ad- 
vertisement should  make  it  as  easy  as  possible  for  the 
purchaser  to  secure  the  goods  he  desires  and  should 
take  away  every  possible  ground  for  hesitation.  In 
these  particulars  the  coupon  is  especially  strong. 

We  have  now  seen  that  the  coupon  attracts  attention 
because  of  its  novelty  or  contrast,  because  of  its  tri- 
angular shape,  because  of  the  direct  command  and  the 
index  finger  which  frequently  accompanies  the  return 
coupon.  We  have  seen  that  it  is  psychologically  strong 
because  it  is  specific  and  direct  in  its  appeal.  We  have 
also  seen  its  strength  in  that  it  makes  answering  the  ad- 
vertisement easy  and  calls  for  immediate  action.  All 
these  advantages  are  but  supplementary  and  subsidiary 
to  the  great  function  of  the  return  coupon.  Its  real 
value  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  it  suggests  to  the 
reader  that  he  should  sign  his  name,  tear  out  the  coupon 
and  send  it  to  the  address  given.  The  prime  value  of 
the  coupon  is  lost  unless  this  is  attained.  The  coupon 
does  attract  attention,  but  that  is  of  value  merely  be- 
cause in  attracting  attention  it  brings  the  suggestion  to 
the  mind  of  the  reader  and  keeps  it  there.    It  is  specific 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON    257 

atid  direct,  but  that  is  of  value  only  because  it  holds 
before  the  mind  the  one  specific  suggestion  which  is 
desired.    It  makes  action  easy  and  that  is  good,  because 


Check  the  edition  of  Price  List  you  wish  sent  (will  send  bodi  tf 
desired),  also  articles  whfch  you  handje  or  use,  so  that  we  can 
send  samples  and  special  inforsaMon  fr«n  time  to  time. 


1 

n  Hirdwarc  Dealers*  Edition 

1 

1 

-^ 

Steel  RosfisCi 

Conductor  Pipe,  Gutter.  Etc, 

! 

^ 

Stetl  CeUiiig. 

n  Roo6ng  and  Metal  Paints 

i 

" 

Tin  Plates 

~]  Asbestos  Paper.  Mill  Board.  Btft 

3 

GalvaoiietL  SmooU  ««  FUnliited  Irpn ' 

Asbestos  Pipe  Covering,  CfiBCSti  CV 

i 

: 

Ridge  RoU  and  Creating 

n  Mineral  Wool 

1 

: 

Skylights  and  Cornices 

^  Furnace  Pipe  aad  Reg(«s», 

\\ 

D 

Sheet  Zinc  and  Coppci 

Tinners  Tools 

D  Lumber  D 

^  Building  Papa*^ 

ealers'  Edition 

Qlwo  and  Three  Ply  Rpogit 

[^-Llncotn    tiooSjtQ 

"n  Asphalt  Roofing 

~   Portable  Gravel  Roofing 

"~j  Roof  Coatings 

^  Asb«ios  rire-Prmtf  Rooeng 

n  Deadening  Felts 

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n  Pitch  and  Coal  Ta» 

~]  Roofing  and  Paring  Asphalt 

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Sf/ite 

Check  here  If  ooi  InMiwted  In  the  >ibmt  lines  of  goods  and  we  wiU  remove  you» 

LJ  aame  from  our  mailing  Ust. 

STAMPED  ENVELOPE  ENCLOSED  FOR  RETURN  OF  THIS  FORM. 

No.  6 


then  no  barrier  is  placed  in  the  way  of  the  suggestion. 
It  calls  for  immediate  action  and  that  is  essential,  be- 
cause unless  the  suggestion  is  acted  upon  at  once  it 
grows  weaker  and  would  fail  of  its  purpose. 

In  connection  with  direct  commands  and  return  cou- 


258       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

pons  there  should  be  some  mention  made  of  other  sim- 
ilar devices  for  suggesting  action.  Among  these  latter 
are  the  return  postal  card,  the  money  envelope,  the 
money  card,  etc.  There  seems  to  be  no  end  to  the  num- 
ber of  such  devices  that  skill  and  ingenuity  may  discover. 
They  are  used  with  great  profit  by  their  inventors,  but 
when  the  novelty  has  worn  off,  they  are  less  valuable, 
and  other  forms  are  then  demanded. 


This  chapter  in  substantially  its  present  form  ap- 
peared first  in  a  magazine  article.  One  of  the  readers 
of  the  magazine  decided  to  make  an  experiment  in  apply- 
ing the  principle  to  his  own  business.  He  noticed  this 
sentence,  ^They  are  used  with  great  profit  by  their 
inventors,  but  when  the  novelty  has  worn  off,  they  are 
less  valuable,  and  other  forms  are  then  demanded."  He 
tried  to  preserve  the  psychological  value  of  the  return 
coupon,  but  to  present  it  in  a  new  form  and  in  such  a 
way  that  it  would  be  adapted  to  his  demands.  The  re- 
sult of  his  labor  is  seen  in  No.  6. 

After  the  form  had  been  in  use  a  short  time  we  re- 
ceived the  following  letter  from  the  inventor  of  it : 

Chicago,  April  2,  1903. 
Dr.  Walter  Dill  Scott, 
Northwestern  University, 
Evanston,  111.: 

Dear  Sir, — I  am  sending  you  under  separate  cover  copy  of  the 
"Ballot"  advertisement,  which  we  got  out  recently  along  the 
lines  suggested  by  your  articles  in  Mahin's  Magazine,  and  are 
pleased  to  report  that  the  returns  are  very  satisfactory.  Over 
50  per  cent,  of  the  sheets  were  returned,  making  a  very  valuable 
mailing  list,  but  we  do  not  consider  this  as  important  as  the 
psychological  value  of  having  the  retail  dealers  make  a  special 
request  for  our  monthly  price  list. 


VALUE  OF  THE  RETURN  COUPON    259 

As  a  test  case,  we  mailed  thirty  of  these  sheets  to  dealers  to 
whom  we  had  been  sending  our  catalogues  and  other  advertis- 
ing material  regularly  for  a  number  of  years,  but  had  never  re- 
ceived any  returns.  Of  these  seventeen  were  returned,  three 
containing  special  requests  for  prices,  one  of  which  resulted  in 
an  immediate  order. 

I  find  the  knowledge  of  the  psychological  principles  of  adver- 
tising very  helpful  in  planning  my  advertising  work,  and  will 
be  pleased  to  give  you  any  further  data  in  regard  to  the  results 
obtained  that  you  may  wish. 

Yours  truly, 

J.  C.  WOODLEY. 

At  the  time  this  chapter  was  prepared  for  publication 
in  magazine  form  (May,  1902)  there  were  but  few 
return  coupons  appearing  in  the  current  magazines, 
and  those  appearing  were  placed  with  but  little  regard 
to  position.  Thus  in  Miinsey's  Magazine  for  May,  1902, 
there  were  but  three  return  coupons,  and  one  of  them 
was  so  placed  that  it  came  next  to  the  binding  and  would 
be  hard  to  detach.  In  McCliire's  for  the  same  month 
there  appeared  four  return  coupons  and  one  of  them  was 
next  to  the  binding.  In  the  Century  Magazine  for  the 
same  month  there  appeared  but  a  single  return  coupon. 
Since  that  date  the  number  of  return  coupons  has  in- 
creased enormously.  Very  often  a  hundred  return  cou- 
pons appear  in  a  single  issue. 


260       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 


XXI 

ATTENTION 

What  does  the  advertiser  seek  to  accomplish  by  his 
advertisements?  The  answers  to  this  question  differ 
merely  as  to  form  of  expression  or  point  of  view.  One 
says,  "The  aim  of  advertising  is  to  attract  attention 
and  to  sell  goods."  Another  statement  would  be  that 
the  purpose  of  advertising  is  to  attract  attention  to 
the  goods  and  to  create  such  a  favorable  impression 
for  them  that  the  reader  will  desire  to  possess  them. 
Whatever  the  statement  may  be,  this  seems  certain — one 
aim  of  every  advertisement  is  to  attract  attention. 
Therefore,  the  entire  problem  of  attention  is  one  of  im- 
portance to  the  advertiser,  and  an  understanding  of 
it  is  necessary  for  its  wisest  application  as  well  as  for 
a  correct  understanding  of  advertising. 

When  we  turn  to  the  question  of  attention,  the  first 
thing  that  impresses  us  is  that  our  attention  is  narrow, 
that  we  are  unable  to  attend  to  many  things  at  once. 
Out  of  all  the  multitude  of  things  competing  for  place 
in  our  attention,  the  great  majority  is  entirely  disre- 
garded. At  the  present  time  you  are  receiving  impres- 
sions of  pressure  from  your  chair  and  from  your  cloth- 
ing, impressions  of  smell  from  flowers  and  from  smoke, 
impressions  of  sound  from  passing  vehicles  and  from 
your  own  breathing,  impressions  of  sight  from  your 
hand  that  holds  this  book  and  from  the  table  on  which 
the  book  rests.  As  I  mention  them  they  are  noticed 
one  after  the  other,     Before  T  mentioned  them  you  were 


ATTENTION  261 

totally  oblivious  of  them.  You  cannot  say  how  many 
distinct  things  you  can  attend  to  at  once.  This  was 
formerly  a  question  of  frequent  debate.  Some  asserted 
that  we  could  attend  to  but  one  thing  at  a  time,  but 
others,  with  equal  vehemence,  insisted  that  a  score  of 
things  could  be  attended  to  at  once.  The  question  has 
been  removed  from  the  realm  of  mere  probability,  for 
it  has  been  investigated  according  to  scientific  methods 
in  the  psychological  laboratories,  and  definite  results 
have  been  obtained.  Ordinary  observers  under  favorable 
conditions  can  attend  to  about  four  visual  objects  at 
once.  ^^Object"  here  is  used  to  indicate  anything  that 
may  be  regarded  as  a  single  thing.  About  four  letters, 
four  simple  pictures,  four  geometrical  figures  or  easy 
words  are  as  much  as  we  can  see  or  attend  to  at  once. 

As  you  look  at  this  page  the  light  is  reflected  to  your 
eyes  from  each  individual  word,  so  one  might  say  that 
you  receive  an  impression  from  each  of  the  words  on 
the  page,  but  if  you  look  at  the  page  closely  you  will 
find  that  you  can  attend  to  but  about  four  words  at 
once. 

If,  then,  there  are  multitudes  of  things  to  be  at- 
tended to  and  we  are  unable  to  attend  to  more  than 
four  at  once,  why  do  we  attend  to  certain  things  and 
disregard  all  the  rest?  What  characteristics  must  any- 
thing have  that  it  may  force  itself  into  our  attention? 
Since  advertisements  are  part  of  the  things  which  may 
or  may  not  be  attended  to,  we  may  be  more  specific 
and  put  the  question  in  this  form:  What  must  be  the 
characteristics  of  an  advertisement  to  force  it  into  the 
attention  of  the  possible  customer? 

If  I  am  interested  in  guns,  take  up  a  magazine,  look 
for  the  advertisements  of  guns  and  read  them  through, 
my  attention  is  voluntary.     If,  while  looking  for  guns, 


262       THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADVERTISING 

something  else  catches  my  eye  for  a  moment  and  I  think 
"that  is  an  advertisement  for  clothing/'  then  my  at- 
tention is  involuntary.  In  the  first  case  I  sought  out 
the  advertisement  with  a  conscious  purpose.  In  the 
second  there  was  no  such  conscious  purpose,  but  the 
advertisement  thrust  itself  upon  my  attention. 

Psychology  is  the  newest  of  the  experimental  sciences 
and  the  investigations  of  involuntary  attention  are  as 
yet  far  from  satisfactory.  The  complete  analysis  of  it 
as  applied  to  advertising  has  to  my  knowledge  never 
been  made.  With  its  complete  analysis  the  following  six 
principles  will  appear: 

The  first  principle  is  that  the  power  of  any  object  to 
force  itself  into  our  attention  depends  on  the  absence 
of  counter  attractions. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  probabilities  that  any 
particular  thing  will  catch  our  attention  are  in  pro- 
portion to  the  absence  of  competing  attractions.  This 
may  be  demonstrated  in  a  specific  case  as  follows :  I  had 
a  card  of  convenient  size  and  on  it  were  four  letters. 
This  card  was  exposed  to  view  for  one  twenty-fifth  of 
a  second,  and  in  that  time  all  the  four  letters  were  read 
by  the  observers.  I  then  added  four  other  letters  and 
exposed  the  card  one  twenty-fifth  of  a  second  as  before. 
The  observers  could  read  but  four  letters  as  in  the  pre- 
vious trial;  but  in  this  exposure  there  was  no  certainty 
that  any  particular  letter  would  be  read.  I  then  added 
four  more  letters  to  the  card  and  exposed  it  as  in  the 
previous  trials.  The  observers  were  still  able  to  read 
but  four  letters.  That  is  to  say,  up  to  a  certain  point 
all  could  be  seen;  when  the  number  of  objects  {i.e., 
letters)  was  doubled,  the  chances  that  any  particular 
object  would  be  seen  were  reduced  to  fifty  per  cent. 
When  the  number  of  objects  was  increased  threefold, 


ATTENTION  263 

the  chance  of  any  particular  object  being  seen  was  re- 
duced to  thirty-three  per  cent.  If  I  should  place  any 
four  particular  letters  on  the  right-hand  page  of  any 
magazine,  and  also  the  same  four  letters  on  the  oppo- 
site page,  and  have  nothing  else  on  these  pages,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  the  letters  would  be  seen,  with  more 
or  less  attention,  in  one  or  both  cases  by  every  one 
who  turns  over  the  pages  of  the  magazine.  This  follows, 
because  at  the  ordinary  reading  distance  the  field  of 
even  comparatively  distinct  vision  is  smaller  than  a 
single  page  of  ordinary  magazine  size,  and  as  one  turns 
the  pages  the  attention  is  not  wider  than  the  page  and 
therefore  the  letters  have  no  rivals  and  would  of  neces- 
sity fill  or  occupy  the  attention  for  an  instant  of  time, 
or  until  the  page  was  turned  over.  If  one  hundred  of 
these  letters  were  placed  on  each  of  the  pages,  the 
chances  that  any  particular  letter  would  be  seen  are 
greatly  reduced. 

This  seems  to  indicate  that,  other  things  being  equal, 
the  full-page  advertisement  is  the  "sure-to-be-seen^'  ad- 
vertisement, and  that  the  size  of  an  advertisement  de- 
termines the  number  of  chances  it  has  of  being  seen. 

This  principle,  which  holds  for  the  parts  of  a  page, 
might  not  hold  for  adjoining  pages.  Thus  it  might 
not  be  to  the  advantage  of  an  advertisement  to  be  the 
only  advertisement  or  the  only  one  of  a  certain  class 
of  goods  in  any  periodical.  If  there  were  eight  adver- 
tisements of  automobiles  on  a  single  page,  the  casual 
reader  would  probably  see  but  one  or  two  of  them.  If 
there  were  eight  full-page  advertisements  of  automobiles 
on  adjoining  pages  of  the  same  magazine,  even  the 
casual  reader  would  be  likely  to  see  them  all.  Whether 
each  of  these  eight  full -page  advertisements  would  be 
as  effective  as  one  would  be  if  it  were  the  only  one  in 


2U       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

the  magazine  is  a  question  for  further  consideration 
and  will  be  taken  up  at  a  later  time. 

If  on  a  single  page  there  are  but  few  words  set  in 
display  type,  and  if  these  words  stand  out  with  no 
competitors  for  the  attention  of  the  reader,  the  chances 


Cool  Off 
in  Colorado 


If  Kg  hot  where  yon  are  and  70a  want  a  change  of  air, 

if  yon  are  tired  and  OTenrorked  and  need  a  little  outing;  go 

to  Colorado.    It  is  the  one  perfect  summer  epot  in  America. 

lie  pore,  dry,  invigorating  air,  the  glory  of  the  mountain 

scenery,  the  quiet  restf  ulness  of  the  place,  the  fine  fishing  and 

folf  links,  the  comfortable  hotete  and  boarding  houses,  all  go  to  mato 

Colorado  the  ideal  country  for  seekers  after  health  and  pleasure 

Send  for  our  "Handbook  of  Colofadp." 
A  trip  to  Colorado  costs  but  littla.  Our  handbook  tells  all  about  th» 
|>rices  for  board  and  the  attractions  at  different  places.  '  Send  for  a  copy 
TO-DAT.  No  charge.  At  the  same  time  I  will  mail  you  a  circular  telling 
about  the  very  cheap  tickets  we  are  selling  to  Colorado.  Round  trip  fron» 
Chicago,  $25  and  $30;  from  St.  Louis,  $21  and  $25,  according  to  the  data. 
It  takes  but  one  night  on  the  road  from  either  Chicago  or  St.  Louis  to  Denver. 
jP.  8.  EUSTIS.  PaMenger  Traffic  Mwtagv  C.  B.  &  Q.  R/.  Co..  Chicago. 


BB 


No.  1 


are  in  favor  of  any  particular  person  reading  this  much 
of  the  advertisement.  Thus,  in  the  advertisement  of  the 
Burlington  Railroad  reproduced  herewith  (No.  1),  the 
words  "Cool  off  in  Colorado"  stand  out  without  having 
to  compete  with  any  counter  attraction.  If  this  idea 
causes  the  reader  to  stop  but  for  a  second  he  will  next 


ATTENTION 


265 


see  the  display  "Burlington  Route''  and  then  "Send  for 
our  Handbook  of  Colorado."  No  one  of  these  displays 
competes  with  the  other,  but  each  assists  the  other. 


Are  Your  LUNGS  WEAK? 

/-,  i.c  ^°.""  '"'"', "e^dw.  Ttiraateixit  wHh  CoiuumpUoa,  Iry  thl>  CcnpM^.  PhKoMDhlul  and  SUCCESSFW. 
CURE.    It  m.jr  SAVE  VOUR,  LIFE,  «.  It  hM  TbooMnd.  rf  «uWrt.     It  I.FRE8.-0R.  SL' CUM. 

HERE  IS  HEALTH 


The  CONSUMPTIVE  Can  Pe  Cured 


Thcf*  Pouf  N«w  preparatloM  e 


piHiWoa  raae»d«d  bj  m>*«    b«'ctaltls.  Asthma.  Catarrh,  Oencral  Oc» 

>  Md  Ctychtaw  Took  br  otUti.  j  Wlity.  Anemia.  Rundown  Sy»tem.  t» 

'^Sr.«'aiV^;oU^b:r.t  -nedkio*  rc^uc^l  to  an  exact  «»«,« 


I  •rranccmcnt.all  our  read- 
nay  be  atllicled  wni  be  tup- 
1  4U  FiU«  f«EE  eEMEBIES. 
utcly  fuarantoa  this  gencf 
When  writint  to  Dr.  Sl»- 


AND  PRESBYTER. 


iTMEHWAU) 


Wrili  for  FOUR  FREE  S/mHiS 
s:t'^">ssSjr»Norieu7T':r"' 


No.  2 


In  the  advertisement  of  Dr.  Slocum,  as  reproduced 
herewith  (No.  2),  there  is  so  much  put  in  display  type 
and  in  so  many  styles  of  type  that  nothing  stands  out 
clearly  and  distinctly.  Each  individual  display  seems  to 
screech  at  the  reader  as  he  turns  the  page.  The  result  is 
that  the  ordinary  reader  feels  confused,  and  turns  away 


266       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

from  such  a  page  without  any  definite  idea  as  to  what  it 
is  all  about.  Each  display  is  a  counter  attraction  to 
each  other  one,  and  so  the  effect  of  all  is  weakened. 

The  second  principle  is  that  the  power  of  any  object 
to  attract  our  attention  depends  on  the  intensity  of 
the  sensation  aroused. 

The  bright  headlight  of  the  locomotive  and  the  red 
lanterns  which  are  used  as  signals  of  danger  arouse 
such  strong  sensations  that  we  simply  must  see  them. 

Moving  objects  produce  a  stronger  sensation  than 
objects  at  rest.  This  accounts  for  the  introduction  of  all 
sorts  of  movement  in  street  advertising. 

Certain  colors  attract  attention  more  than  others. 
Prof.  Harlow  Gale  has  made  some  experiments  to  de- 
termine what  the  attention  value  of  the  different  colors 
is.  He  has  found  that  red  is  the  color  having  the  great- 
est attention  value,  green  is  the  second,  and  black  is 
the  third.  Black  on  a  white  background  is  more  effective 
than  white  on  a  black  background. 

Large  and  heavy  types  not  only  occupy  a  large 
amount  of  space  and  so  force  attention  to  themselves 
by  excluding  counter  attractions,  but,  in  addition  to 
this,  they  affect  the  eye  and  give  a  strong  sensation 
and  thereby  attract  the  attention.  Experiments  have 
been  made  to' find  the  attention  value  of  the  different- 
sized  type.  It  has  been  found  that,  within  the  limits  of 
the  experiments,  the  attention  value  of  display  type 
increases  in  almost  exact  proportion  to  the  increase  of 
its  size. 

The  eye  is  like  a  photographer's  camera.  If  it  is 
focused  for  any  particular  object,  all  others  appear 
through  it  to  be  blurred  and  indistinct.  If  I  fix  my 
eyes  upon  an  object  directly  in  front  of  me,  all  others 
are  seen  but  dimly.    My  hand,  held  to  the  extreme  right 


ATTENTION  267 

or  left,  is  then  seen  so  indistinctly  that  I  cannot  count 
the  fingers.  Objects  that  fall  under  the  direct  gaze 
of  the  eyes  make  stronger  visual  impressions  than  those 
which  fall  out  of  the  focus.  The  former  ordinarily  attract 
the  attention,  the  latter  seldom  do.  As  one  turns  over 
the  pages  of  advertisements,  those  which  fall  directly 
within  the  focus  of  the  eye  have  the  best  chance  of 
attracting  the  attention. 

An  important  question  for  the  advertiser  is :  Where 
does  the  ordinary  reader  direct  his  eyes  as  he  turns  the 
pages  of  a  magazine?  Does  he  begin  at  the  front  or  at 
the  back  of  the  magazine?  Does  he  turn  his  eyes  first 
to  the  top  or  to  the  middle  or  to  the  bottom  of  the  page? 
Are  his  eyes  turned  more  to  the  right  or  more  to  the 
left  of  the  page?  These  questions  have  been  the  sub- 
ject of  frequent  discussion,  but  they  never  have  been 
subjected  to  sufficiently  extensive  investigation. 

The  third  principle  is  that  the  attention  value  of  an 
object  depends  upon  the  contrast  it  forms  to  the  object 
presented  with  it^  preceding  or  following  it. 

The  contrast  produced  by  a  flash  of  lightning  on  a 
dark  night,  or  by  the  hooting  of  an  owl  at  midnight,  is 
so  strong  that  the  attention  is  absolutely  forced,  and 
there  is  no  one  who  can  disregard  them.  Novel  things 
and  sudden  changes  of  any  sort  are  noticed,  while 
familiar  things  and  gradual  changes  are  hardly  noticed 
at  all. 

This  is  a  matter  of  common  experience,  but  has  been 
strikingly  illustrated  with  frogs.  The  following  quo- 
tation is  taken  from  a  recent  work  of  the  director  of 
the  psychological  laboratory  at  Yale  University:  "Al- 
though a  frog  jumps  readily  enough  when  put  in  warm 
water,  yet  a  frog  can  be  boiled  without  a  movement  if 
the  water  is  heated  slowly  enough.     In  one  experiment 


268       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

the  water  was  heated  at  the  rate  of  .0036  of  a  degree 
Fahrenheit  per  second;  the  frog  never  moved  and  at 
the  end  of  two  and  one-half  hours  was  found  dead.  He 
had  evidently  been  boiled  without  noticing  it." 

My  explanation  of  these  results  is  that  at  any  point 
of  time  the  temperature  of  water  was  in  such  little 
contrast  with  the  temperature  a  moment  before  that 
the  attention  of  the  frog  was  never  attracted  to  the 
temperature  of  the  water  at  all ;  so  the  frog  was  actually 
boiled  to  death  without  becoming  aware  of  the  fact ! 

As  we  turn  the  pages  of  a  magazine  we  do  not  see 
each  page  as  an  independent  unit,  but  we  see  it  in  re- 
lation to  what  has  gone  before.  If  it  is  in  marked  con- 
trast to  the  preceding  there  is  a  sort  of  shock  felt  which 
is  in  reality  the  perception  of  the  contrast.  This  ele- 
ment is  a  constant  force  in  drawing  the  attention. 
What  has  been  said  of  the  full  page  is  equally  true  of 
the  parts  of  it. 

In  the  case  of  magazine  or  newspaper  advertising, 
the  responsibility  for  making  effective  contrasts  is 
shared  alike  by  the  individual  advertiser  and  by  the 
"make-up."  Contrasts  may  be  so  harmoniously  formed 
that  the  things  contrasted  are  mutually  strengthened, 
just  as  is  the  case  when  red  and  green  are  placed  in 
juxtaposition.  The  red  looks  redder  and  the  green 
looks  greener.  But  if  the  contrast  is  incongruous  the 
value  of  each  is  impaired.  Thus  if  two  musical  but 
mutually  discordant  tones  are  sounded  together  or  one 
after  the  other,  the  beauty  of  each  is  lost. 

No  one  has  been  conscious  of  this  principle  of  contrast 
to  a  greater  extent  than  the  advertiser.  He  has  intro- 
duced all  sorts  of  things  into  his  advertisements  merely 
to  attract  attention  through  contrast :  He  has  inserted 
his  advertisements  upside  down;  he  has  had  the  lines 


ATTENTION  269 

of  the  reading  matter  run  crosswise ;  he  has  substituted 
black  background  for  the  ordinary  wliite.  The  inherent 
skill  of  the  American  advertiser  has  been  made  manifest 
by  this  ingenuity  in  devising  novel,  ever-changing,  and 
striking  contrasts.  Indeed,  some  have  followed  this 
principle  too  far  and  have  produced  novelties  and  con- 
trasts, but  their  work  has  not  been  successful,  because 
they  have  violated  other  equally  important  principles. 

Thus  the  advertisement  of  the  Burlington  Route  em- 
ploys the  principle  of  contrast  successfully.  The  ad- 
vertisement of  Dr.  Slocum  makes  use  of  the  same  prin- 
ciple, but  the  result  is  nothing  short  of  a  botch. 

The  three  principles  as  given  above  are  important 
and  are  the  three  methods  which  the  practical  adver- 
tiser uses  most  to  attract  attention.  The  three  which 
shall  be  given  next  are  methods  which  are  of  almost 
equal  importance,  but  which  are  frequently  disregarded 
by  the  writers  of  advertisements. 

The  fourth  principle  is  that  the  power  which  any 
object  has  to  attract  our  attention,  or  its  attention 
value,  depends  on  the  ease  with  which  we  are  able  to 
comprehend  it. 

This  principle  is  one  which  is  often  neglected  by 
the  advertiser.  A  few  illustrations  will  help  to  make 
it  clear.  A  child  in  turning  over  the  pages  of  a  book 
or  magazine  does  not  have  his  attention  attracted  at 
all  by  the  printed  words.  Even  the  pictures  do  not 
attract  his  attention  unless  they  are  in  bright  colors 
or  represent  something  which  he  can  understand.  The 
same  thing  is  true  with  adults.  We  will  turn  our  at- 
tention to  nothing  unless  it  speaks  to  us  in  terms  which 
we  can  interpret  with  comparative  ease.  It  is  difficult 
to  comprehend  an  entirely  new  thing  or  function.  From 
this  it  follows  that  a  new  article  should  be  introduced 


270       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 


as  a  modification  of  a  familiar  one,  or  as  something 
performing  a  well-known  function.  The  pedagogical 
maxim  of  always  advancing  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known is  so  well  established  that  its  violation  must 
be  regarded  as  more  or  less  suicidal. 


No.  3 

Styles  of  lettering  that  are  not  easily  read  and  cuts 
that  are  not  easily  interpreted  are  not  so  attractive  as 
lettering  and  cuts  that  are  more  simple  and  transparent 
in  their  meaning. 

Cuts  that  in  themselves  are  good  and  lettering  that 
is  distinct  may  be  so  united  and  so  dimmed  by  the 


ATTENTION  271 

background  that  the  whole  is  an  indistinct  blur.  As  an 
example  of  an  advertisement  that  is  good  as  to  indi- 
vidual details  but  poor  as  to  the  entire  effect,  we  have 
reproduced  herewith  (No.  3)  an  advertisement  of  the 
Purina  Mills.      The  display  of  this  advertisement  is 


WHERE      YOU      CAN,     AND 

WHERE   YOU   CANNOT, 

ECONOMIZE. 

A  cheaper  horse  is  simply  LESS 
valuable:  an  ugly  flower  has  no  value 
at  all.  Cloth  not  so  fine  may  not  wear 
quite  so  long:  an  out-of-style  bonnet  is 
xinwearable.  If  you  cannot  afford 
mahogany,  maple  will  do;  but  poor 
varnish  is  death  to  the  beauty  of 
anything. 

Murphy  Varnish  Co. 

FRANKLIN    MURPHY.   President 
Head  Office :   Newark,  N   J 
0  Qther  Offices  :   Boston,  Cleveland,  St  Louis,  and  Chicago. 

Factories     Newark  and  Chicago. 

No.  4 

hard  to  read,  and  it  is,  therefore,  not  so  attractive  as 
it  would  otherwise  be. 

The  name  or  brand  of  goods  often  makes  them  difficult 
to  advertise.  Thus  Orangeine  does  not  suggest  what  the 
Orangeine  Chemical  Company  would  have  it  suggest. 
People  do  not  know  what  it  is,  and  so  fail  to  be  attracted 
by  the  advertisement  simply  because  it  is  meaningless 
to  them. 


272       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 


Many  advertisers  have  used  certain  forms  of  expres- 
sion and  illustrations  which  bear  no  necessary  rela- 
tion to  the  rest  of  the  advertisement  or  to  the  goods 
advertised.     They  have  been  called  "irrelevant  words'' 


"Ws  easy  ^ 

to  ask  iot} 


White 

Star 

Coffee 


BujJng  coffee  in  one 

and   Iwo   po'ind  cml* 

makes  it   possible  foi 

you  tn  obtain   all  M'O 

strentfih    and     hII 

the  flaror     Thi^  ia 

rffllly     nrliAt     \ou 

buy.      foT      (lie 

Kroimd"  )ou  tli»o» 

e»ay.^  A  pouod  •>! 

While 
Star  Coflee 

will  make  mora 
cups  ilian  a  pnuiirt 
i>f  any  o  t  li  e  f 
brand.  be 
cause  it  is  de 
velopfid  more 
highJy. 


No.  5 

or  "irrelevant  cuts,"  as  the  case  might  be.  Their  func- 
tion is  presumably  that  of  attracting  attention.  As  they 
stand,  they  are  not  easily  comprehended,  and  actual 
experiment  has  shown  that  they  do  not  attract  the  at- 
tention of  one  hastily  looking  at  the  page  of  the  maga- 
zine as  often  as  relevant  words  or  relevant  cuts. 


ATTENTION  273 

The  advertisement  of  the  Murphy  Varnish  Company, 
as  reproduced  on  page  271  (No.  4),  has  made  use  of  a 
form  of  display  which  we  would  call  "irrelevant  words." 
This  display  has  nothing  particular  to  do  with  varnish. 
It  could  be  used  equally  well  with  almost  any  adver- 
tisement appearing  in  magazines  to-day.  It  would,  how- 
ever, be  equally  poor  in  any  case.  It  does  not  increase 
the  reader's  knowledge  concerning  the  proposition  which 
the  varnish  company  has  to  offer,  and  the  ordinary 
reader  would  not  be  likely  to  be  attracted  by  any  such 
"catch-words"  as  these. 

The  advertisers  of  the  White  Star  Coffee  (No.  5) 
have  filled  up  one-half  of  their  space  with  the  picture 
of  a  slimy  frog.  When  one  is  thinking  of  frogs  he  is 
not  in  condition  to  listen  to  the  arguments  in  favor  of 
any  coffee.  But,  aside  from  such  considerations,  I  be- 
lieve that  there  is  no  proof  that  such  an  open  attempt  to 
force  the  attention  of  the  reader  is  advisable  or  suc- 
cessful. 

The  advertisement  of  the  American  Lead  Pencil  Com- 
pany, as  reproduced  herewith  (No.  6),  has  made  use 
of  cuts  that  illustrate.  Such  an  illustration  is  called  a 
relevant  cut.  The  casual  reader  sees  at  a  glance  what 
this  advertisement  is  all  about,  and  such  advertisements 
attract  us  instantly. 

The  great  majority  of  all  advertisements  appearing 
at  the  present  time  make  use  of  words  in  display  type 
which  indicate  in  brief  what  the  entire  advertisement 
is  about.  Such  headings  are  called  relevant  words.  The 
picture  which  tells  the  story  is  more  easily  compre- 
hended than  any  possible  expression  in  words.  This  is 
one  reason  why  the  picture  is  the  most  attractive  form 
of  advertising- 

The  fifth  principle  is  that  the  attention  value  of  an 


274       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

object  depends  on  the  numher  of  times  it  comes  before 
uSy  or  on  repetition. 

It  is  no  anomaly  that  children  are  attracted  most  by 
the  oft-repeated  tale.     This  is  in  but  apparent  contra- 


mm  Tt  £ook$  Like 


Uncondil 
Guaranteed  one 
year. 


Relative  size  of 
points  exaggerated 


Meoted  la  United  States  and  Abroad. 


No.  6 


diction  to  the  third  principle.  A  thing  which  is  in  con- 
trast to  all  other  things  and  yet  frequently  repeated 
meets  both  conditions.  The  psychological  explanation 
of  the  value  of  repetition  is  somewhat  involved,  but 
the  fact  is  seen  by  every  careful  observer.  The  ques- 
tions concerning  repetition  as  applied  to  advertising 
are  as  yet  unsettled. 


ATTENTION  275 

In  the  case  of  goods  having  an  equal  sale  all  the  year, 
if  a  given  advertisement  is  to  appear  one  hundred  times, 
is  it  best  to  insert  it  in  one  hundred  different  maga- 
zines once,  so  that  the  reader  can  see  it  in  all  his  peri- 
odicals for  a  few  days,  or  is  it  better  to  have  the  same 
advertisement  appear  in  one  hundred  different  issues 
of  the  same  magazine?  In  other  words,  are  repetitions 
more  effective  if  they  follow  rapidly  one  after  the  other, 
or  if  they  are  separated  by  a  longer  period  of  time? 

Another  question  is  this :  How  much  of  an  advertise- 
ment should  be  repeated?  Some  advertisements  have 
unchangeable  characteristics  which  are  always  repeated 
and  which  serve  to  identify  all  the  advertisements  of 
a  particular  house.  Others  are  completely  changed 
as  to  all  prominent  features  with  every  issue,  and  the 
casual  observer  would  not  notice  that  the  two  succes- 
sive advertisements  were  for  the  same  goods — he  cer- 
tainly would  not  notice  that  they  were  from  the  same 
house.  Still  other  advertisements  have  certain  promi- 
nent features  which  are  constantly  changing,  but  which 
are  always  recognizable  as  representing  the  same  firm. 

The  advertisement  which  is  the  same  from  year  to 
year  is  lacking  in  contrast.  It  is  not  necessarily  inef- 
fective, but  it  takes^  time  to  accomplish  its  results.  The 
frog  that  was  boiled  without  noticing  it  succumbed  at 
last  to  the  slowly  rising  temperature.  The  man  who 
sees  the  same  advertisement  month  after  month  will 
at  last  purchase  the  goods  advertised  without  ever 
having  paid  any  particular  attention  to  the  advertise- 
ment and  would  be  unable  to  say  why  he  purchased 
those  particular  goods. 

The  advertisement  which  is  changed  completely  with 
every  issue  is  lacking  in  repetition  value  and  would  be 
good  only  when  it  is  of  such  a  nature  that  a  large  per 


276       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

cent,  of  the  intended  purchasers  would  read  it  thor- 
oughly enough  to  supply  the  missing  links  and  to  unite 
it  to  the  others  of  the  series. 

The  advertisement  with  a  constant  recognizable  fea- 
ture that  varies  in  detail  from  time  to  time  allows  for 
both  change  and  repetition,  and  is  to  that  extent  the 
best  advertisement. 


I  Print  niy  Own  Cards 

Circulars,  Newspaper.  Press  ^5.  r,nrger  size,  918. 
Money  saver.  lUg  profits  printing  for  others. 
Type  setting  easy,  rules  sent.  Write  for  catalog* 
presses,  type,  paper,  etc.,  to  factory. 

THE    PRESS    CO.,  Meriden,  Conn» 


No.  7 


This  advertisement  of  a  printing  press  company  (No. 
7)  has,  so  far  as  I  know,  never  been  changed.  It  is 
just  the  same  in  all  publications  in  which  the  firm 
advertises,  and  is  the  same  year  in  and  year  out.  It 
has  doubtless  been  more  or  less  successful.  Would  it 
have  been  more  effective  if  the  copy  had  been  changed? 

The  two  advertisements  of  the  Franklin  Mills  (Nos. 
8  and  9)  have  nothing  in  common.  No  one  but  a  care- 
ful reader  would  know  that  they  were  advertisements 
of  the  same  firm.  This  same  firm  has  been  careful  to 
have  the  wheat  border  in  all  advertisements  of  Wheatlet. 
The  seal  containing  the  'portrait  of  Franklin  is  also 
often  present  in  the  advertisements  of  Wheatlet.  Would 
it  not  be  advisable  to  retain  this  wheat  border  or  the 
seal  in  all  advertisements  issuing  from  this  firm?  If 
certain  readers  had  become  interested  in  the  adver- 
tisements of  Wheatlet,  for  instance,  and  had  become 
familiar  with  the  characteristic  seal,  they  would  be 
attracted  by  the  other  advertisements  of  this  firm  if  they 
saw  the  seal  down  in  the  corner  of  the  advertisement. 


ATTENTION 


277 


Very  many  firms  are  at  the  present  time  changing 
their  copy  frequently,  but  they  retain  some  character- 
istic feature  so  that  we  can  recognize  the  new  adver- 
tisements as  old  friends  in  a  new  form.  Thus  the 
Cream  of  Wheat  advertisements  are  identified  by  the 


sm 

(COMMISARI 


OVERALLOTHER(EREALS. 

For  Uncle  Sam's  boys,  the  Government  demand  the 
best.    Unsolicited,  the  Government's  order  for 

WHEATLET 

reaches  us  reprutarly.  becausfe  careful  tesi  proved 
Wheatlet  the  best  cereal. 

Whether  you  lead  a  strenuous  life  or  not.  Wheatlet 
will  do  you  more  good  than  any  breakfast  food  you 
can  ent.    Start  the  New  Year  right. 

Prove  everything  we  say  with  full  half  pound  sample 
mailed  for  grocer's  name  and  3  two  cent  stamps. 

l/^-,..^^         THE  FRANKLIN  MILLS  COMPANY. 

"All the  JJ'Jiratthafs  Fit  to  Eat," 
f^Ixl  *g,^70QSpringarden  St..        LocKPORT.  N  Y. 
$200  is  to  be  given  Children.     Write,  us. 


No.  8 


genial  colored  chef.  I  have  come  to  like  that  chef,  and 
am  attracted  by  every  advertisement  in  which  he  ap- 
pears. If  he  were  left  out,  I  should  not  be  so  likely  to 
notice  the  advertisement  as  I  am  with  him  in  it.  Each 
of  their  advertisements  is  in  a  sense  new  and  in  con- 
trast with  all  their  other  advertisements,  but  this  col- 


278       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

ored  chef  offers  just  enough  of  repetition  to  make  the 
advertisement  attractive. 

The  sixth  and  last  principle  is  that  the  attention  value 
of  an  object  depends  on  the  intensity  of  the  feeling 
aroused. 


''Half  a  Loaf 

is  better  than  no  loaf  '* 

is  a  good,  true  old  saying;  half  a  loaf  is 
better  than  a  whole  loaf  if  that  half  loaf 
be  made  of 


Containing  **all  the  wheat  tliaVs  fit  to  eat*** 

^Tbis  is  the  trade-mark  to  be  found  on' 
every  package  and 
every  barrel  of  the 
genuine  Franklin 
Mills  Flour. 

It  is  sold  by  first- 
class  grocers  gen- 
erally in  original 
packages  of  from 
6>^  lbs.  to  full  bar* 
rels  of  196  lbs. 

Manufactured  only  by 

THE  FBANEUN  MILLS  CO.,     Lockport,  N.  1. 

WRITE  THEM  FOR  FREE  BOOKLET. 

No.  9 


Attention  is  not  merely  a  process  in  which  the  mind 
grasps  a  certain  fact,  but  it  is  also  a  process  in  which 
we  feel.  It  is  either  a  pleasurable  or  a  painful  feeling. 
That  a  thing  may  attract  our  attention  it  must  not 
affect  us  indifferently,  but  must  either  please  or  dis- 


ATTENTION  279 

please  us.  At  this  point  the  work  of  the  true  artist 
becomes  essential.  In  the  ideal  advertisement  the  emo- 
tions and  sensibilities  of  the  possible  customers  must 
be  appealed  to. 

In  all  advertisements  the  esthetic  feelings  may  be 
aroused  by  at  least  the  harmonious  combinations  of 
color  and  form.  Curiosity,  pride,  sympathy,  ambition, 
and  many  other  feelings  and  emotions  have  been  awak- 
ened by  the  skillful  advertiser.  With  certain  adver- 
tisers the  desire  seems  to  have  been  merely  to  attract 
attention  regardless  of  the  emotion  awakened.  They 
have  been  successful  in  attracting  attention,  but  their 
advertisements  are  so  obtrusive  and  repulsive  that  their 
value,  as  a  means  of  selling  goods,  is  inconsiderable. 

The  man  who  confines  himself  to  the  simple  state- 
ment of  facts  may  not  be  subject  to  the  mistakes  that 
befall  the  man  who  attempts  more  difficult  things.  The 
photographer  presents  all  the  details  of  a  scene,  but 
he  does  not  appeal  to  the  emotions  and  the  heart  of  the 
public  as  the  artist  does.  The  work  of  the  photographer 
may  be  truer  to  the  facts,  but  the  work  of  the  artist 
attracts  our  attention  more  readily.  We  do  not  under- 
stand the  feelings  and  emotions  of  the  human  breast, 
and  yet  it  is  often  advisable  to  run  the  risk  of  attempt- 
ing appeals  to  the  emotions. 

There  are  scores  of  advertisers  who  attempt  to  appeal 
to  the  joyful  emotions.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
joy  is  but  one  of  the  emotions.  The  visitor  to  an  art 
gallery  is  at  once  struck  by  the  frequent  appeal  to  the 
sadder  emotions.  It  is  not  at  all  easy  to  find  in  our 
magazine  advertising  any  appeal  or  any  reference  to  the 
more  pathetic  aspects  of  life.  The  following  is  a  repro- 
duction (No.  10)  of  an  advertisement  of  the  Prudential 
Insurance  Company.     This  advertisement  does  not  ap- 


280      THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

-pear  in  recent  magazines,  yet  it  is  certainly  much  better 
than  many  highly  approved  advertisements  of  insurance 
companies.  The  skillful  advertiser  should  be  able  to 
appeal  to  more  than  one  emotion  and  he  should  be  able 


^ii^d 


^ 


ris  hard  enou^-h  on  a  woman  to  be  thrown  on  her  own  resootcft.  The 
death  of  the  husband  and  father  is  quite  enoug;h  by  itself.  If  the  burden  of 
debt  and  want  be  added  to  it,  the  woman's  life  is  hardly  worth  the  living. 
Comparatively  few  men  in  America  are  able  to  accumulate  any  money. 
Perhaps  not  one  in  a  hundred  does  it.-  It  is  this  that  makes  life  insurance 
an  imperative  necessity.  Nobody  can  take  the  insurance  money  away  from 
tlie  one  to  whom  you  make  it  payable.  It  will  not  assuag;e  the  grief,  Jiut 
■t  will  increase  the  comfort  of  those  who  are  living.  It  discharges,  to  some 
extent,  the  obligation  every  man  incurs  when  he  marries. 

Our  two  forms  of  life  insurance,  the  "Industrial"  (for  policies  of  $tOOO 
or  less,  on  weekly  payments)  and  the  "Ordinary"  (for  policies  of  $1(XX) 
and  more,  quarterly,  semi-annual,  and  annual  payments),  are  clearly  ex- 
plained in  our  booklets — sent  free  on  request. 

Prudential  Insurance  Co- 

of  America 

rOHN  F.  DRYDEN,  ProidtnL  Homt  OIBc  NEWARK.  N.  J. 


No.  10 


to  appeal  to  the  one  which  brings  the  reader  into  the 
attitude  of  mind  which  is  in  keeping  with  the  proposition 
offered. 

The  designer  of  advertisements  must  be  something 
more  than  a  skilled  artisan;  he  must  be  an  artist  and 
must  be  able  to  put  soul  into  his  work,  so  that  his  pro- 
duction will  appeal  to  the  sentiment  as  well  as  to  the 


ATTENTION  281 

intellect  of  those  who  are  to  be  influenced  by  it.  The 
art  demands  the  work  of  an  artist. 

Such  is  in  brief  the  discussion  of  the  six  fundamental 
principles  underlying  the  psychology  of  involuntary  at- 
tention in  general,  and  the  psychology  of  involuntary 
attention  as  applied  to  advertising  in  particular.  The 
purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  present  in  an  introductory 
manner  the  psychology  of  a  part  of  advertising,  i.e.^  in- 
voluntary attention,  and  with  special  reference  to  maga- 
zine and  newspaper  advertising. 

Before  the  psychology  of  involuntary  attention  is 
complete,  the  following  are  among  the  questions  that 
must  be  investigated : 

What  is  the  comparative  attention  value  of  small  and 
of  large  spaces,  for  instance,  a  quarter  and  a  full  page 
advertisement? 

What  is  the  comparative  attention  value  of  advertise- 
ments next  to  reading  matter  and  of  advertisements 
segregated  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  magazines? 

What  is  the  comparative  attention  value  of  space 
among  classified  advertisements  and  of  space  among  un- 
classified advertisements,  or  advertisements  of  a  different 
class  of  goods? 

Is  the  additional  attention  value  secured  by  tinted 
paper,  colored  type,  and  colored  cuts  sufficient  to  war- 
rant their  increased  introduction? 

For  any  particular  class  of  advertisements,  what  is 
the  least  possible  space  for  a  must-be-seen  advertisement? 

What  size  and  style  of  type  is  the  most  valuable  for 
attracting  attention? 

What  part  of  a  page  and  which  pages  are  the  most 
valuable  for  attention? 

What  is  the  comparative  attention  value  of  novel  and 
of  conventional  advertisements? 


282       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

How  does  repetition  affect  the  attention  value  of  an 
advertisement?  How  complete  should  the  repetition 
be  and  how  often  and  how  rapidly  should  the  advertise- 
ment be  repeated  to  secure  the  best  results? 

Is  a  small  advertisement  appearing  one  hundred  times 
a  year  as  good  as  one  ten  times  as  large  and  appearing 
ten  times  in  a  year? 

What  are  the  respective  attention  values  of  relevant 
cuts,  relevant  words,  irrelevant  cuts,  and  irrelevant 
words? 

Is  a  line  of  display  type  extending  entirely  across  a 
page  as  valuable  as  the  same  display  in  two  lines  ex- 
tending half  across  the  page? 

What  is  the  relative  attention  value  of  representations 
of  the  pathetic,  humorous,  pleasing,  and  displeasing? 

Such  is  a  brief  syllabus  for  future  investigation  upon 
involuntary  attention  as  applied  to  advertising.  These 
questions  can  probably  all  be  answered,  some  easily  and 
others  only  after  difficult  and  extensive  investigations. 
It  is  quite  plain  that  investigation  on  these  questions 
would  be  of  the  greatest  practical  value  to  the  advertiser. 


SMALL  AND  LARGE  SPACES     283 


XXII 

ATTENTION  VALUE  OF  SMALL  AND 
OF  LAEGE  SPACES 

There  are  certain  things  which  seem  to  force  them- 
selves upon  us  whether  we  will  or  not.  We  seem  to  be 
compelled  to  attend  to  them  by  some  mysterious  instinc- 
tive tendency  of  our  nervous  organization.  Thus  mov- 
ing objects,  sudden  contrasts,  large  objects,  etc.,  seem 
to  catch  our  attention  with  irresistible  force.  Again 
there  are  certain  conditions  which  favor  attention  and 
others  which  hinder  it.  Among  the  conditions  favoring 
attention  the  following  is,  for  the  advertiser,  of  special 
significance.  The  power  of  any  object  to  compel  atten- 
tion depends  upon  the  absence  of  counter-attraction.  In 
the  preceding  chapter  appeared  the  following  paragraph : 

^^Other  things  being  equal,  the  probabilities  that  any 
particular  thing  will  catch  our  attention  are  in  propor- 
tion to  the  absence  of  competing  attractions.  This  may 
be  demonstrated  in  a  specific  case  as  follows :  I  had  a 
card  of  convenient  size  and  on  it  were  four  letters.  This 
card  was  exposed  to  view  for  one  twenty-fifth  of  a  sec- 
ond, and  in  that  time  all  the  four  letters  were  read  by 
the  observers.  I  then  added  four  other  letters  and  ex- 
posed the  card  one  twenty-fifth  of  a  second  as  before. 
The  observers  could  read  but  four  of  the  letters  as  in 
the  previous  trial,  but  in  this  exposure  there  was  no 


284       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

certainty  that  any  particular  letter  would  be  read.  I 
then  added  four  more  letters  to  the  card  and  exposed  the 
letters  as  in  the  previous  trials.  The  observers  were 
still  able  to  read  but  four  letters.  That  is  to  say,  up  to  a 
certain  point  all  could  be  seen.  When  the  number  of 
objects  (i.e.y  letters)  was  doubled,  the  chances  that  any 
particular  object  would  be  seen  were  reduced  fifty  per 
cent.  When  the  number  of  objects  was  increased  three- 
fold, the  chances  of  any  particular  object  being  seen 
were  reduced  to  thirty-three  per  cent.  If  I  should  place 
any  particular  four  letters  on  the  right  and  also  the  same 
letters  on  the  left  hand  page  of  any  magazine  and  have 
nothing  else  on  the  page,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  letters 
would  be  seen,  with  more  or  less  attention,  in  one  or  both 
cases  by  every  one  who  turns  over  the  pages  of  the  maga- 
zine. This  follows  because  at  the  ordinary  reading 
distance  the  field  of  even  comparatively  distinct  vision  is 
smaller  than  a  single  page  of  ordinary  magazine  size, 
and  as  one  turns  the  pages  the  attention  is  ordinarily 
not  wider  than  the  page,  and  therefore  the  letters  have 
no  rivals  and  would  of  necessity  fill  or  occupy  the  atten- 
tion for  an  instant  of  time,  or  until  the  page  was  turned 
over.  If  one  hundred  of  these  letters  are  placed  on 
each  of  the  pages  the  chances  that  any  particular  letter 
will  be  seen  are  greatly  reduced.  This  seems  to  indi- 
cate that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  full-page  adver- 
tisement is  the  ^  sure-to-be-seen  '  advertisement  and  that 
the  size  of  an  advertisement  determines  the  number  of 
chances  it  has  of  being  seen." 

Even  a  casual  reader  of  advertisements  is  aware  of 
the  fact  that  full-page  advertisements  attract  atten- 
tion more  than  smaller  advertisements.  Every  adver- 
tiser knows  that  if  he  should  occupy  full  pages  he  would 
secure  more  attention  than  if  he  should  occupy  quarter 


SMALL  AND  LARGE  SPACES      285 

pages,  yet  one  of  the  most  perplexing  questions  which 
any  advertiser  has  to  deal  with  is  the  adequate  amount 
of  space  for  any  particular  advertisement  or  for  any 
particular  advertising  campaign.  The  question  is  not 
as  to  the  superiority  of  full  pages  in  comparison  with 
smaller  spaces.  All-  feel  sure  that  any  advertisement 
would  be  more  valuable  if  it  occupied  a  full  page  than 
if  it  occupied  only  half  of  it.  But  the  real  question  is 
whether  it  is  twice  as  valuable,  for  it  costs  practically 
twice  as  much.  A  quarter-page  announcement  is  valu- 
able, but  a  half-page  is  worth  more — ^is  it  worth  twice  as 
much?  It  is  of  course  conceded  that  some  advertise- 
ments are  unprofitable  regardless  of  the  space  occupied, 
and  that  others  are  profitable  when  filling  various 
amounts  of  space.  It  is  also  conceded  that  certain  ad- 
vertisements require  a  large  space  and  that  others  are 
profitable  as  an  inch  advertisement  but  would  be  un- 
profitable if  inflated  to  occupy  a  full  page. 

There  are  exceptions  and  special  cases,  but  the  ques- 
tion can  be  intelligently  stated  as  follows:  Of  all  the 
advertisements  being  run  in  current  advertising,  which 
is  the  more  profitable,  in  proportion  to  the  space  occu- 
pied, the  large  or  the  small  advertisement?  Since 
profitableness  is  a  very  broad  term  and  depends  upon 
many  conditions,  we  will  for  the  present  confine  our- 
selves to  one  of  the  characteristics  of  a  profitable  ad- 
vertisement, i.e.y  its  attention  value. 

The  quotation  presented  above  was  deduced  from  a 
theoretical  study  of  attention,  before  opportunity  had 
been  offered  to  verify  it  by  means  of  experiments  with 
advertisements.  To  investigate  the  question  the  follow- 
ing tests  were  made :  I  handed  each  of  the  forty  students 
in  my  class  a  copy  of  the  current  issue  of  the  Century 
Magazine.     I  then  asked  them  to  take  the  magazines 


286       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

and  look  them  through,  just  as  they  ordinarily  do,  but 
not  to  read  any  poetry  or  long  articles.  Some  of  them 
put  in  all  their  time  reading  advertisements ;  some 
glanced  through  the  advertisements,  read  over  the  table 
of  contents  and  looked  over  the  reading  matter;  a  few 
failed  even  to  look  at  the  advertisements.  At  the  end 
of  ten  minutes,  I  surprised  them  by  asking  them  to 
lay  aside  the  magazines  and  write  down  all  they  could 
remember  about  each  of  the  advertisements  they  had 
seen.  I  sent  the  same  magazines  to  other  persons  in 
other  parts  of  the  country  and  had  them  use  the  maga- 
zines in  the  same  way  in  which  I  had  used  them.  In 
this  way  tests  were  made  with  over  five  hundred  per- 
sons mostly  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  thirty. 

These  results  were  carefully  tabulated  as  to  the  exact 
number  of  persons  who  mentioned  each  individual  ad- 
vertisement. We  then  got  together  all  references  to 
each  particular  advertisement  and  so  could  compare  the 
different  advertisements,  not  only  as  to  the  fact  of  bare 
remembrance,  but  also  as  to  the  amount  of  information 
which  each  had  furnished,  the  desire  it  had  created  to 
secure  the  goods,  etc.  At  the  present  time  we  shall  con- 
sider all  advertisements  mainly  from  the  standard  of 
attracting  attention  sufficiently  to  be  recalled  by  those 
who  saw  them. 

Out  of  the  ninety-one  full-page  advertisements,  sixty- 
four  of  them  are  advertisements  of  books  and  periodicals, 
while  of  the  half-page,  quarter-page,  and  small  adver- 
tisements there  is  a  total  of  about  five  pages  devoted 
to  books  and  periodicals.  To  compare  the  full-page  ad- 
vertisements with  the  other  advertisements  in  this  par- 
ticular magazine  would  be  to  compare  advertisements  of 
books  and  periodicals  with  advertisements  of  other 
classes  of  goods.    To  obviate  this  difficulty,  we  shall  di- 


SMALL  AND  LARGE  SPACES      287 

vide  all  advertisements  into  two  classes:  (1)  those  of 
goods  other  than  books  and  periodicals;  (2)  those  of 
books  and  periodicals. 

The  twenty-seven  full-page  advertisements  of  goods 
other  than  books  or  periodicals  were  remembered  (men- 
tioned in  the  reports  of  the  five  hundred  persons  tested) 
five  hundred  and  thirty  times,  which  is  an  average  of 
approximately  twenty  for  each  advertisement.  The 
sixty-four  full-page  advertisements  of  books  and  peri- 
odicals were  remembered  six  hundred  and  six  times, 
which  is  an  average  of  nine  times  for  each  advertisement. 

The  thirty-nine  half-page  advertisements  of  goods 
other  than  books  or  periodicals  were  mentioned  three 
hundred  and  fifty-eight  times,  which  is  an  average  of 
nine  times  for  each  advertisement. 

The  sixty-seven  quarter-page  advertisements,  other 
than  those  of  books  or  periodicals,  were  mentioned  two 
hundred  and  twenty-three  times,  which  is  an  average  of 
three  for  each  advertisement.  The  three  quarter-page 
advertisements  of  books  and  magazines  were  mentioned 
only  twice,  which  is  an  average  of  less  than  one  for  each 
advertisement. 

As  less  than  a  single  quarter-page  of  small  adver- 
tisements was  of  books  and  periodicals,  it  is  useless  to 
consider  such  advertisements  separately.  There  are 
ninety-eight  small  advertisements,  and  these  were  men- 
tioned but  sixty-five  times,  which  is  an  average  of  much 
less  than  one  for  each  advertisement. 

The  inefficiency  of  the  small  advertisement  is  made 
more  striking  when  we  consider  that  for  all  advertise- 
ments other  than  for  those  of  books  and  periodicals  a 
full  page  was  mentioned  approximately  twenty  times, 
a  half -page  nine  times,  a  quarter-page  three  times,  and  a 
small  advertisement  less  than  a  single  time.    As  is  shown 


288       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

in  the  following  table  of  all  advertisements  other  than 
those  of  books  and  periodicals,  a  quarter-page  adver- 
tisement was  mentioned  thirty  per  cent,  of tener  than  a 
quarter-page  of  small  advertisements;  a  half-page  ad- 
vertisement was  mentioned  eighty  per  cent,  oftener  than 
a  half-page  of  small  advertisements;  and  a  full-page 
advertisement  was  mentioned  ninety  per  cent,  oftener 
than  a  full  page  of  small  advertisements. 

The  tabulated  results  for  all  advertisements  other  than 
of  books  and  periodicals  are  as  f ollow^s : 


Size  of  Advertisement.' 


Number  of  advertisements 

Pages  occupied 

Total  number  out  of  500  persons 

who  mentioned  them 

Average  number  of  mentions  for 

each   advertisement 

Average  number  of  mentions  for 

each  page  occupied 


cu 

bO 

, 

d 

1 

p. 

ft 

i 

1-H 

«(H 

a 

^ 

fe 

w 

<y . 

27 

39 

67 

27 

iH 

161 

530 

358 

^^8 

19H 

^tV 

3 

19H 

18M 

13 

98 
6 

65 


65 


10 


When  we  consider  the  advertisements  for  books  and 
periodicals,  the  differences  are  enormous.  A  half-page 
advertisement  was  noticed  fifty  per  cent,  oftener  than 
two  quarter-page  advertisements,  and  a  full-page  adver- 
tisement was  mentioned  two  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent, 
oftener  than  four  quarter-page  advertisements. 

The  tabulated  results  for  advertisements  of  books  and 
periodicals  are  as  follows : 


SMALL  AND  LARGE  SPACES 


289 


Size  of  Advertisement.*^ 

1 

P. 

1 

ft 

^ 

Number  of  advertisements 

Pages  occupied 

64 
64 

606 

m 

9M 

8 
4 

16 

2 

4 

3 

f 

2 
§ 
2f 

Total  number  out  of  500  persons 
v^^ho  mentioned  them 

csoa 

Average  number  of  mentions  for 
each,  advertisement 

Average  number  of  mentions  for 
each  page  occupied 

"D  tj  *  2  W 

An  advertisement  was  regarded  as  "remembered"  if 
it  was  mentioned  at  all.  In  some  instances  the  illus- 
tration alone  was  remembered  and  the  person  mention- 
ing it  was  unable  to  tell  what  advertisement  the  illustra- 
tion was  used  with.    In  a  few  instances  the  illustration 


KXT^oxrvv^.     |E>JUjJtxyv/cl.  ^cJk<ro-P 


VVXp.-A_, . V -3^  >^  0  a. 


.f^XkK^-^lLtjiJl,  Orwu    O>XXJLrirJt\^0rv\,'  T'^'vJj^  0-v\«,  \,Kr-C»J>i 
^C«r^oL     H-v^.f'^  ^o^UU^-i-l-Ju^^    -Lo-v-H.    \o-rwdL  «.Ar-^v<»Jt 


No.   1. 


-This  report  indicates  the  educational  value 
of  this  advertisement. 


290       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

of  one  brand  of  goods  was  interpreted  as  an  advertise- 
ment of  the  competing  brand.  On  the  other  hand  the 
results  were  frequently  astounding  in  their  revelation 
of  the  effectiveness  of  the  advertisements  in  impart- 
ing the  essential  information  and  creating  a  desire  for 
the  goods.     The  cut  (No.  1)  is  a  reproduction  of  the 


No.    2. — ^A   full-page   advertisement   pos- 
sessing great  attention  value. 


report  of  one  of  the  pupils  in  Minneapolis,  made  after  she 
had  looked  through  the  magazine  for  ten  minutes  with- 
out the  knowledge  that  she  would  be  called  upon  to 
report  on  what  she  had  read.  The  advertisement  de- 
scribed by  this  pupil  was  mentioned  more  than  any  other 
and  is  reproduced  herewith  as  No.  2. 

Soon  after  the  completion  of  the  investigation  de- 
scribed above  a  supplementary  investigation  was  de- 


SMALL  AND  LAEGE  SPACES      291 

vised  to  see  whether  similar  results  would  be  secured 
from  a  more  diversified  list  of  advertisements  and  from 
the  class  of  persons  for  whom  the  advertisements  were 
especially  written.  We  took  the  binding  wires  out  of 
a  large  number  of  magazines  and  thus  were  able  to  make 
a  collection  of  advertising  pages  without  tearing  the 
margins  of  the  leaves.  We  made  use  of  magazines  of 
different  years  and  of  different  kinds,  but  all  used  were 
of  uniform  magazine  size.  From  these  leaves  we  chose 
one  hundred  pages  of  advertisements,  being  careful  to 
choose  as  many  different  styles  of  advertisements  as  pos- 
sible. We  had  in  these  pages  advertisements  of  almost 
everything  which  has  been  advertised  in  magazines  of  re- 
cent years.  We  had  all  the  different  styles  of  display,  of 
type  and  illustration,  of  colored  cuts  and  tinted  paper, 
etc.  We  had  these  hundred  pages  bound  up  with  the 
body  of  a  current  magazine,  and  the  whole  thing  looked 
like  any  ordinary  magazine.  Indeed,  no  one  suspected 
that  it  was  "made  up"  as  he  looked  at  it. 

This  specially  prepared  magazine  was  handed  to 
fifty  adults.  A  large  number  of  them  were  heads  of  fam- 
ilies, readers  of  magazines,  and  purchasers  of  the  goods 
advertised.  Thirty-three  of  them  were  women  and  seven- 
teen men.  Some  of.  them  lived  in  a  city  and  some  in  a 
country  town.  As  we  had  tried  to  choose  all  the  different 
kinds  of  advertisements  possible,  so  we  tried  to  get  all 
kinds  and  conditions  of  people  for  subjects.  With  three  * 
exceptions,  the  subjects  knew  nothing  of  the  nature  of 
the  experiment.  Some  of  them  knew  that  it  was  for 
experimental  purposes,  but  some  of  them  merely  took  the 
magazine  and  looked  it  through,  supposing  that  it  was 
the  latest  magazine.  Each  one  was  requested  to  look 
through  the  magazine  and,  in  every  case  tabulated,  all  the 
hundred  pages  of  advertisements  were  turned.     Some  of 


292       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

the  subjects  turned  the  pages  rapidly  and  got  through  in 
three  minutes,  others  were  thirty  minutes  in  getting 
through.  The  average  time  for  the  fifty  subjects  was  a 
little  over  ten  minutes. 

As  soon  as  each  subject  had  completely  looked  through 
the  magazine  it  was  taken  away  from  him  and  he  was 
asked  to  "mention'^  all  the  advertisements  which  he 
'had  seen,  and  to  tell  all  about  each  of  them.  What  he 
said  was  written  down,  and  then  the  subject  was  given 
the  magazine  again  and  asked  to  look  it  through  and 
indicate  each  advertisement  which  he  recognized  as  one 
which  he  had  seen  but  had  forgotten  to  mention. 

There  was  very  great  diversity  in  individuals  in  their 
ability  to  mention  the  advertisements  which  they  had 
just  seen.  Some  of  them  mentioned  as  high  as  thirty 
different  advertisements;  one  man  was  unable  to  men- 
tion a  single  advertisement  which  he  had  seen,  although 
all  the  one  hundred  pages  of  advertisements  had  been 
before  his  eyes  but  a  moment  before. 

There  was  also  great  diversity  in  subjects  in  their 
ability  to  recognize  the  advertisements  when  they  looked 
through  the  magazine  the  second  time.  Some  of  them 
recognized  as  high  as  one  hundred  advertisements  when 
looking  through  the  second  time  and  were  surprised 
that  they  had  forgotten  to  mention  them.  Others,  in 
looking  through  the  second  time,  were  surprised  to  see 
how  unfamiliar  the  magazine  looked.  One  subject,  who 
mentioned  but  three  advertisements,  could  recognize  only 
three  others.  He  had  no  recollection  of  having  seen  any 
of  the  others.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  certain 
persons  may  turn  over  the  advertising  pages  of  a  maga- 
zine and  yet  hardly  see  the  advertisements  at  all. 

As  in  the  previous  investigations,  we  divided  all  ad- 
vertisements into  two  classes:     (1)   advertisements  of 


SMALL  AND  LARGE  SPACES      293 

goods  other  than  books  and  periodicals  and  called,  there- 
fore, miscellaneous  advertisements;  (2)  advertisements 
of  books  and  periodicals. 

The  forty-three  pages  of  full-page  miscellaneous  ad- 
vertisements were  mentioned  two  hundred  and  eighty- 
one  times  .and  recognized  five  hundred  and  forty-four 
times.  That  is,  each  of  these  advertisements  was  men- 
tioned on  an  average  of  6|f  times  and  recognized  on 
an  average  of  12||  times  in  addition. 

The  thirty-one  full-page  advertisements  of  books  and 
periodicals  were  mentioned  eighty-five  times  by  the  fifty 
subjects,  which  is  an  average  of  2||  times  for  each 
advertisement.  The  thirty-one  full  pages  were  recog- 
nized (upon  looking  through  the  magazine  a  second 
time)  two  hundred  and  seventy-six  times  by  the  fifty 
subjects,  in  addition  to  the  ^^mentions."  Each  of  these 
advertisements  was  thus  recognized  on  an  average  almost 
nine  times. 

The  fifteen  half-page  advertisements  of  miscellaneous 
advertisements  were  mentioned  forty-one  times,  which  is 
an  average  of  2^^  times  for  each.  The  fifteen  adver- 
tisements were  recognized  one  hundred  and  eighteen 
times  in  addition,  which  is  an  average  of  7yf  times 
for  each  one. 

There  are  but  four  half -page  advertisements  of  books 
and  periodicals,  and  only  one  of  them  was  mentioned  by 
any  of  the  fifty,  and  that  but  once.  That  gives  an 
average  of  one-fourth  mention  for  each  advertisement. 
They  were  recognized  by  twenty-four,  which  is  an 
average  of  six  for  each  advertisement. 

The  thirty-six  quarter-page  miscellaneous  advertise- 
ments were  mentioned  thirty-nine  times,  which  is  an 
average  of  1^2^  times  for  each  advertisement.  They  were 
recognized  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  times,  which 


294       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

is  an  average  of  3f g^  times  for  each.  There  are  six 
quarter-page  advertisements  of  books  and  periodicals. 
These  six  were  mentioned  only  three  times,  which  is  an 
average  of  one-half  for  each  advertisement. 

The  ninety-three  small  miscellaneous  advertisements 
were  mentioned  fourteen  times,  which  makes  an  average 
of  fourteen  ninety-thirds.  They  were  recognized  thirty- 
four  times,  which  is  an  average  of  thirty-four  ninety- 
thirds  for  each  advertisement.  Of  the  small  advertise- 
ments, only  seven  were  of  books  and  periodicals;  these 
seven  were  mentioned  once,  which  is  an  average  of  one- 
seventh  for  each.  The  seven  were  recognized  only  twice, 
or  on  the  average  of  two-sevenths. 

The  following  tabulations  will  make  clear  the  results 
secured  from  fifty  adults : 

Tabulated  results  for  all  miscellaneous  advertisements 
secured  from  fifty  adults  as  follows : 


Size  of  Advertisement. 


Number  of  advertisements 

Pages  occupied 

Total  number  of  mentions 

Average  number  of  mentions  for 
each   advertisement 

Average  number  of  mentions  for 
each  page  occupied 

Total  (additional)  number  of  rec- 
ognitions  

Average  number  of  recognitions 
for  each  advertisement 

Average  number  of  recognitions 
for  each  page  occupied 


CJ 

be 

a 

OJ 

Si^ 

Ck 

be 
a 

be 

i 

etH 

b 

3 

73 

■   0 

^ 

W 

a 

43 

15 

36 

43 

7i 

9 

281 

41 

39 

6ff 

2H 

liV 

611 

5tV 

4* 

544 

118 

122 

1211 

7U 

3tV 

12|f 

15H 

131 

OQ 


93 
51 
14 


M' 


2t\ 
34 


34 


6A 


SMALL  AND  LARGE  SPACES 


295 


Tabulated  results  for  all  advertisements  of  books  and 
periodicals  secured  from  fifty  adults  as  follows: 


Size  of  Advertisements 


Number  of  advertisements 

Pages  occupied 

Total  number  wlio  mentioned  them 

Average  number  of  mentions  for 
each   advertisement 

Average  number  of  mentions  for 
each  page  occupied 

Total  (additional)  number  of  rec- 
ognitions  

Average  number  of  recognitions 
for  each  advertisement ,. . 

AA-erage  number  of  recognitions 
for  each  page  occupied 


o 

bO 

OS 

o 

O) 

7:^ 

P. 

l-H 

«H 

f3 

rt 

?i 

P^ 

w 

G* 

31 

4 

6 

81 

2 

\\ 

85 

1 

3 

2|f 

\ 

\ 

2ff 

\ 

2 

276 

24 

11 

8fl 

6 

It 

8ff 

12 

1\ 

As  is  shown  by  the  foregoing,  for  all  kinds  of  ad- 
vertisements, with  but  one  exception,  a  full-page  ad- 
vertisement was  mentioned  oftener  than  two  half-page 
advertisements,  two  half -page  advertisements  were  men- 
tioned oftener  than  four  quarter-page  advertisements, 
and  four  quarter-page  advertisements  were  mentioned 
oftener  than  a  full  page  of  small  advertisements.  The 
exception  referred  to  is  the  half-page  advertisements^  of 
books  which  fell  below  all  other-sized  advertisements,  but 
as  the  number  of  "recognized'^  is  very  large,  the  apparent 
exception  should  not  be  emphasized. 

Although  an  advertisement  had  not  impressed  the 
reader  sufficiently  to  enable  him  to  mention  it  after  he 
had  closed  the  magazine,  yet  it  may  have  made  such  an 


296       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

impression  on  him  that  he  could  recall  it  if  a  need  or 
something  else  should  arise  to  suggest  it  to  his  mind. 
Thus,  to  find  out  how  many  of  the  advertisements  had 
made  any  appreciable  impression,  we  had  each  subject 
see  how  many  of  the  advertisements  in  the  magazine  he 
could  recognize  a  few  minutes  after  he  had  looked 
through  it  for  the  first  time.  The  results  given  aJ)ove 
indicate  that  a  quarter-page  advertisement  was  recog- 
nized oftener  than  a  quarter-page  of  small  advertise- 
ments; that  a  half-page  advertisement  was  recognized 
oftener  than  two  quarter-page  advertisements;  but  that 
the  full-page  advertisements  in  three  instances  were 
recognized  less  often  proportionately  than  smaller  ad- 
vertisements, i.e.,  half -page  and  quarter-page  miscella- 
neous advertisements  and  half-page  advertisements  of 
books  and  periodicals. 

These  three  exceptional  instances  are  of  no  significance 
inasmuch  as  the  full-page  advertisements  had  been  pre- 
viously mentioned  and  therefore  had  been  excluded  from 
those  that  could  be  merely  recognized. 

The  report  given  by  each  subject  was  carefully  an- 
alyzed to  see  how  many  times  each  advertisement  im- 
pressed a  subject  sufficiently  so  that  he  would  know  at 
least  what  general  class  of  goods  the  advertisement  repre- 
sented. Upon  comparing  the  reports  upon  the  different 
advertisements  at  this  point,  it  was  found  that  the  sub- 
ject knew  what  class  of  goods  the  full-page  advertisement 
represented  much  better  than  what  the  half-page  repre- 
sented; that  the  half -page  was  better  than  the  quarter- 
page,  and  that  the  quarter-page  was  better  than  the 
small  advertisement. 

Results  were  then  compiled  as  to  the  comparative 
values  of  the  different-sized  advertisements  in  impress- 
ing upon  the  subjects  the  individual  brand  or  name  of 


SMALL  AND  LARGE  SPACES 


297 


the  goods  advertised.  It  was  found  that  this  informa- 
tion was  imparted  much  better  by  the  larger  advertise- 
ments. In  a  similar  way,  results  were  compiled  as  to 
the  name  and  address  of  the  firm,  the  price  of  the  goods 
offered  and  the  line  of  argument  presented  by  the  ad- 
vertiser.    In  all  of  these  cases  it  was  found  that  the 


r 


W;^^," 


'.th  Ivory  Soap  a'i3  a 

•x^c    are   brivcd,    tHs 

lun  .3  Ktttr  abit 

]'  Mrain- 


'h  cf  ccJdi- 


No.    3. — This    full-page    advertisement 
attracts  attention.    Does  it  sell  soap  ? 


full-page  advertisement  was  more  than  twice  as  effective 
as  a  half-page  advertisement ;  a  half-page  was  more  than 
twice  as  effective  as  a  quarter-page,  and  a  quarter-page 
was  more  effective  than  a  quarter  page  of  small  adver- 
tisements.     ^ 

The  full-page  advertisements,  which  were  mentioned 
by  the  greatest  number  of  subjects  were  Ivory  Soap 
(mentioned  twenty-four  times  and  reproduced  herewith 


298      THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISING 

as  No.  3),  In-er-Seal  (mentioned  twenty-three  times), 
and  Pears'  Soap  (mentioned  twenty  times,  reproduced 
herewith  as  No.  4).  Of  the  twenty-four  persons  who 
mentioned  Ivory  Soap  (No.  3),  but  sixteen  knew  that 
it  was  an  advertisement  of  soap  at  all,  and  only  fourteen 


luusEcfEARS.sOAPiJ! 


4. — Full-page    reproduction    effective 
as  mere  display  advertising. 


knew  that  it  was  an  advertisement  of  Ivory  Soap.  Of 
the  twenty- three  persons  who  mentioned  In-er-Seal,  only 
sixteen  knew  that  it  referred  to  biscuits,  while  but  nine 
knew  that  it  was  an  advertisement  of  In-er-Seal  goods. 
The  advertisement  in  question  is  the  familiar  one  of  a  boy 
in  a  raincoat  putting  packages  of  In-er-Seal  in  a  cup- 
board. Of  the  twenty  persons  who  mentioned  Pears' 
Soap  (No.  4),  every  one  of  them  knew  that  it  was  an 
advertisement  of  Pears'  Soap.    Only  five  of  the  full-page 


SMALL  AND  LARGE   SPACES 


299 


advertisements  were  mentioned  by  none  of  the  fifty  sub- 
jects. These  five  were  of  the  New  York  Central  Rail- 
road (No.  5),  Egyptian  Deities  Cigarettes,  Waltham 
Watches  (No.  6),  Equitable  Life  Assurance  Society, 
and  the  Lyman  D.  Morse  Advertising  Agency.     There 


I 

2 
3 


5=P0INTERS=5 


TThe  New'YorV  G^nfr.-il  does  not  chim  to  be  ih*  only  rail- 
toad  in  the  world — "rhere  jre  others  .  ii  is.  however, 
the  gre^t  Four-trjck  Trunk  line  of  the  United  States.  And. 
has  earned  the  title  given  it  by  press  and  people  on  both 
'*5ides  of  ihe  Atlantic,  of  "America's  Greatest  Railroad." 

"  rt/  ^/rw  K.r»  Ctrnt-af  ««  i^A/r,  all  -rt^i,  /^  /t,l  trmfinti^e  nCnTr/. 
J  rom_»n  Lditoriil  m  Hie.LOKT>ON  TIMES. 

The  New  York  Centr.il  operates  the  fastest  and  most 

perten  through  train  service  in  the  world,  reaching  by  its 

through  cars  the  most  impon.int  commercial  centres  of 

the    United    Sutes    and    Can.ida.   and    the  greatest  of 

^.America's  health  and  pleasure  resorts. 


f  tfrJ  'i"i!ilr-f\,niK  ^rrtl-ti/>*f- ' 


5 


ttmaml -^  From  an  Ediiorul  in  th»  NE*  YORK.  HERAU). 

The  New  York  Central  is  the  direA  Line  between  the 
American  metropolis  and  Ni.>g.?r.i  F.ills.  hy  w.iu  of  Ihe 
historic  Hudson  River  and  through  the  beautiful  Mohawk 
Valley. 

^  -  ru-imut  tfo^HAI  ne*l  T  ri„r  nil-unr^  vni  ntt„c  ikTM^aml,  Vullrft 

d-t  «r,  «/  (../.•',  W,r,   „..l  ,nf,^i,,.  ..»f  inin^t  Ihal  I  SnW  nlo-^g  iht  A'rK. 

eCfit'al  ii'Oul.t  have  erkausu.i  j/ /^.-cTv.-,"— tiiratl  from  scnaoo^oXJlevt 
.  OcW.a  Tmlmigc.  on  "  Ihe  f  utesi  Traio.in.lhc  Worl^ 

'The  New  "York  Central's  metropolitan  terminus  is  at 

Grand  Central  Station,  Founh  Avenue  and  Forty-second 

Street,  in  the  very  centre  of  the  hotel,  residence,  and 

theatre  seftion,  this  being  the  only  Trunk  Line  whose 

-    trains  enter  the  City  of  New  York. 


"The entire  Main  Line  of  theNew  York  Centr.ii,  between 
New  York  and.BuflUIo  and  Niagara  Falls,  is  proteifled  by 
the  most  pet1fe<3Lsystem  of  block  signals  in  the  world." 


i 


No.  5. — Weak  attention  value  in  any  size. 


were  very  many  half-page,  quarter-page,  and  small  ad- 
vertisements which  were  mentioned  and  recognized  by 
none  of  the  fifty  persons  tested. 

The  results  indicated  a  very  great  difference  between 
individual  advertisements  which  filled  the  same  space. 
Quality  is  more  important  than  quantity.  Certain  styles 
of  advertisements  ( depending  upon  the  goods  advertised 


300       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

as  well  as  on  other  things)  are  effective  in  any  space, 
and  others  are  comparatively  worthless,  even  if  filling  a 
full  page.  An  advertiser  should  certainly  give  more 
heed  to  the  quality  of  his  advertisement  than  to  its  size, 
yet  the  size  is  an  important  element. 

Nobody  wants  a  poor  watch. 
We  all  want  a  good  one.     The 
jimerican  Waltbam  Watch  Company 
has  made  it  possible  for  every- 
body to  own  a  perfect  watch  at 
a  moderate  price.     No  one  nee4 
go  to  Europe  for  %.  watch 
nowadays.     The  best  are  made 
in  Waltham,  Mass.,  right  here 
in  America.     The  Company 
particularly  recommends  the 
movements  engraved  with  the 
xx^A^-maixV:^' Riverside*^  or 
^^RoyaV*  (made  in  various  sizes), 
tvhich  cost  about  one-third  as' 
much  as  foreign  movements  of 
the  same  quality.    All  retail  jew- 
elers have  them  or  can  get  them; 
Do  not  be  misled  or  persuaded 
into  paying  a  larger  price  for. a 
Watch  no  better  and  probably  not 
«o  good  as  a  iValtham^ 

No.   6. — An  advertisement  possessing 
but  little  attention  value. 

In  the  case  of  these  one  hundred  pages  of  typical  ad- 
vertisements, the  size  of  the  advertisements  affected  their 
value  materially.  In  the  number  of  times  the  advertise- 
ment was  mentioned  from  memory,  in  the  number  of 
times  it  was  recognized  when  the  magazine  was  looked 
at  for  the  second  time,  and  in  the  number  of  times  that 
the  advertisement  conveyed  definite  information  as  to 


SMALL  AND  LARGE  SPACES      301 

the  general  class  of  goods  advertised,  the  specific  name  or 
brand  of  the  goods,  the  name  of  the  firm,  the  address 
of  the  firm,  the  price  of  the  goods,  and  the  argument  pre- 
sented in  favor  of  the  goods — in  all  of  these  points  (dis- 
regarding the  exception  mentioned  above)  the  full-page 
advertisement  was  more  than  twice  as  effective  as  the 
half-page ;  the  half-page  was  more  than  twice  as  effective 
as  the  quarter-page ;  the  quarter-page  was  more  effective 
than  a  quarter  page  of  small  advertisements.  -  In  other 
words,  at  all  points  considered  in  the  two  investigations 
described  above,  the  value  of  an  advertisement  increases 
as  the  size  of  the  advertisement  increases,  and  the  "in- 
crease of  value  is  greater  than  the  increase  in  the  amount 
of  space  filled. 


302       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 


XXIII 
THE  MOETALITY^  RATE  OF  ADVERTISERS 

In  the  preceding  chapter  it  was  shown  that  the  larger 
advertisements  attract  the  attention  much  more  than  the 
smaller  ones.  The  larger  ones  also  offer  more  opportu- 
nity for  relevant  text  and  appropriate  illustrations.  The 
larger  advertisements  are  best  for  imparting  the  desired 
information  and  for  making  a  lasting  impression  on  the 
possible  customers.  Many  business  men,  however,  believe 
that  the  small  advertisement  is  safer  than  the  larger  one 
and  that  the  larger  spaces  are  luxuries  reserved  for  those 
who  are  able  to  incur  losses  without  serious  consequences. 

If  the  users  of  large  spaces  are  reckless  and  the  users 
of  small  spaces  cautious  and  conservative,  we  should 
naturally  suppose  that  the  more  conservative  firms 
would  be  the  ones  which  would  stay  in  business  longest 
and  which  might  be  looked  for  in  each  successive  year 
in  the  advertising  pages  of  certain  magazines.  There 
is  a  tradition  that  the  users  of  advertising  space  are,  as  a 
whole,  rather  ephemeral,  that  they  are  in  the  magazines 
to-day,  and  to-morrow  have  ceased  to  exist.  There  are, 
on  the  other  hand,  persons  with  perfect  faith  in  ad- 
vertising who  believe  that  all  a  firm  has  to  do  is  to 
advertise  and  its  success  is  assured. 

This  chapter  presents  the  results  of  extensive  investi- 
gations carried  on  to  ascertain  more  definitely  the 
stability  of  advertisers  and  to  discover  which  sizes  of 
advertisements  seem  to  be  the  safest  and  most  profitable. 

Data  were  secured  from  all  firms  located  west  of 


MORTALITY  RATE  OF  ADVERTISERS      303 

Buffalo  and  advertising  in  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal  for 
a  period  of  eight  years.  All  firms  were  grouped  together 
which  had  appeared  in  this  magazine  but  one  of  these 
years,  all  which  had  appeared  two  of  the  years,  all  which 
had  appeared  three  of  the  years,  etc.,  up  to  and  including 
all  of  the  firms  which  had  appeared  the  eight  years  under 
consideration.  After  a  careful  analysis  had  been  m^de 
the  following  significant  results  were  secured : 


Number  of  Years  the  Firms 

Average  Number  of  Lines 

Continued  to  Advertise. 

Used 

Annually  by  Each  Firm. 

1  year 

56  lines 

2  years 

116  lines 

3  years 

168  Hues 

4  years 

194  hnes 

6  years 

192  lines 

6  years 

262  lines 

7  years 

218  Unes 

8  years 

600  lines 

This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  in  general  if  a  firm 
uses  fifty-six  lines  annually  in  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal 
the  results  will  be  so  unsatisfactory  that  it  will  not  try 
it  again.  If  it  uses  one  hundred  and  sixteen  lines 
annually  it  will  be  encouraged  to  attempt  it  the  second 
year,  but  will  then  drop  out.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
uses  six  hundred  lines  annually  the  results  will  be  so 
satisfactory  that  it  will  continue  to  use  the  same  maga- 
ziiie  indefinitely.  (A  very  large  number  of  the  firms 
who  continued  in  eight  years  continued  in  for  a  longer 
time. ) 

There  were  but  1,247  firms  included  in  the  data  pre- 
sented above.  Other  data  were  secured  from  the  entire 
number  of  firms  advertising  in  the  Ladies'  Home  Jour- 
nal, the  Delineator^  Harper^s,  and  Scrihner^s  for  certain 
periods,  but  inasmuch  as  the  data  from  all  these  merely 
confirm  those  presented  above  they  are  not  added  here. 


304       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Advertisers  are  in  general  wise  business  men  and  are 
usually  able  to  tell  whether  their  advertising  pays  or 
not.  If  it  pays,  they  continue  it ;  if  it  does  not  pay,  they 
cease  to  advertise.  Every  one  can  think  of  an  occasional 
exception,  but  in  general  the  statement  is  correct.  That 
class  of  advertising  which  is  the  most  successful  is  the 
class  most  likely  to  be  continued.  That  class  which  is  the 
least  successful  is  the  least  likely  to  be  continued.  The 
survival  of  the  fittest  is  as  true  in  advertising  as  it  is  in 
organic  nature.  If  large  spaces  are  more  valuable  in 
proportion  to  their  size  than  small  spaces,  we  should 
expect  to  find  the  larger  spaces  surviving.  If  the  smaller 
spaces  are  more  valuable  in  proportion  to  their  size  we 
should  expect  to  find  the  small  spaces  surviving. 

What  has  been  the  experience  of  advertisers — espe- 
cially of  magazine  advertisers — on  this  point?  It  is  a 
debated  question  whether  there  is  a  growing  tendency 
toward  larger  or  smaller  advertisements.  In  articles  in 
magazines  for  business  men  the  statement  is  often  made 
that  we  are  finding  it  unnecessary  to  use  large  spaces, 
but  that  small  spaces  well  filled  are  the  more  profitable. 

To  find  out  definitely  what  the  tendency  is  in  regard 
to  the  use  of  space,  several  investigations  have  been 
carried  on.  We  shall,  however,  confine  the  discussion 
to  the  question  as  it  manifests  itself  in  the  Century 
Magazine.  We  have  chosen  the  Century  because  it  is 
one  of  the  best  advertising  mediums,  because  it  has  had 
one  of  the  most  consistent  histories,  and  because  all  the 
files  have  been  made  available  from  the  first  issue  of  the 
magazine.  We  have  conducted  similar  investigations, 
but  in  a  less  thorough  manner,  with  several  of  the  lead- 
ing advertising  mediums  in  America.  In  each  one  of 
these  investigations  we  have  secured  results  similar  to 
those  presented  below  from  the  Century.     The  following 


MORTALITY  RATE  OF  ADVERTISERS     305 

data,  therefore,  show  a  general  tendency ;  so  the  data  and 
discussion  are  not  to  be  interpreted  as  having  any  special 
reference  to  the  Century  Magazine.  In  preparing  the 
tabulation,  school  announcements  and  announcements 
made  by  the  publishers  of  the  magazine  were  disre- 
garded. 

In  the  following  table  the  first  column  indicates  the 
year,  the  second  column  the  total  number  of  pages 
devoted  to  commercial  advertising  during  that  year  in 
the  Century  Magazine,  the  third  column  the  total  num- 
ber of  firms  advertising  in  the  magazine  that  year,  the 
fourth  the  average  number  of  lines  used  by  each  firm 
during  the  year,  the  fifth  the  average  number  of  lines 
in  each  advertisement  appearing  in  the  magazine  for 
that  year,  the  sixth  the  average  number  of  times  each 
firm  advertised  in  the  Century  for  that  year. 

Several  things  in  this  tabulation  are  worthy  of  careful 
consideration.  The  total  number  of  pages  devoted  to 
advertising  has  been  increasing  very  rapidly  till  now 
there  are  over  one  thousand  pages  devoted  to  advertising 
annually  as  compared  with  two  hundred  pages  which 
was  the  approximate  amount  during  the  first  ten  years 
of  the  existence  of  the  magazine.  With  the  exception  of 
the  years  of  financial  distress  in  the  nineties  almost 
every  year  has  shown  an  increase  over  the  preceding 
year.  The  growth  has  been  so  constant  and  has  been 
sustained  for  so  many  years  that  it  would  seem  to  be 
nothing  more  than  a  normal  growth.  The  increase  is 
seen  to  be  greatest  in  the  years  of  prosperity,  while  dur- 
ing the  years  of  depression  there  is  usually  a  decrease. 

The  second  point  to  be  considered  in  the  tabulation  is 
the  number  of  firms  which  advertised  in  the  magazine  in 
the  years  from  1870  to  1907.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
during  the  first  ten  years  there  were  about  two  hundred 


306      THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISING 

firms  advertising.  From  1880  to  1890  the  increase  was 
extremely  rapid.  In  1880  there  were  but  two  hundred 
and  ninety-three  firms,  while  in  1890  there  were  nine 
hundred  and  ten  firms  advertising  in  the  same  magazine. 
From  1890  there  has  been  a  rapid  falling  off  till  in  1907 
there  were  but  three  hundred  and  sixty-four  firms  adver- 
tising in  the  magazine.  During  the  year  1907  fewer 
firms  were  advertising  in  this  magazine  than  for  any 
year  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  Although  the  decrease 
has  been  but  slight  during  the  recent  prosperous  years, 
we  can  but  wonder  what  will  happen  when  a  period  of 
years  comes  which  is  less  prosperous,  such  years,  for 
instance,  as  those  of  the  early  nineties  when  the  number 
of  firms  was  so  greatly  reduced. 

The  question  naturally  arises  as  to  the  possibility  of 
nine  hundred  firms  advertising  successfully  during  a 
single  year  in  the  same  magazine.  Perhaps  it  is  pos- 
sible, but  it  certainly  has  not  been  attained  in  1890- 
1907;  otherwise  the  firms  would  not  have  discontinued 
their  contracts.  Certain  advertising  managers  have 
seen  the  difficulty  of  crowding  so  many  advertisements 
into  the  two  groups  at  the  front  and  the  end  of  the 
magazines  and  have  sought  to  avoid  the  difficulty  by 
scattering  the  advertisements  through  the  reading  mat- 
ter. In  this  way  all  advertisements  are  in  some  maga- 
zines placed  "next  to  reading  matter."  The  proof  is  not 
conclusive  that  this  method  of  scattering  the  advertise- 
ments is  of  any  great  advantage. 

The  point  made  clear  by  the  fourth  column  of  the 
table  is  that  of  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  space  used 
annually  by  each  advertiser.  The  fifth  and  sixth 
columns  show  that  this  increase  is  not  due  to  the  more 
frequent  insertion  of  advertisements,  but  to  the  in- 
creased size  of  the  individual  advertisements.      Until 


MORTALITY  RATE  OF  ADVERTISERS     307 


Date. 

Total  number  of 
pages     of     com- 
mercial advertis- 
ing for  each  year 
in     the    Century 
Magazine. 

Total  number  of 
different  firms  ad- 
vertising    during 
each  year  in  the 
Century      Maga- 
zine. 

Average   number 
of  lines  used  by 
each      advertiser 
during  the  twelve 
months     in     the 
Century      Maga- 
zine. 

Average   number 
of  lines  in   each 
advertisement 
appearing  in  the 
Century      Maga- 
zine for  the  year 
indicated. 

Average    nimiber 
of      times      each 
firm      advertised 
during    the    year 
in     the     CerUury 
Magazine. 

1870 

33 

66 

112 

1871 

154 

186 

185 

1872 

183 

251 

163 

38 

4.22 

1873 

196 

300 

146 

32 

4.46 

1874 

189 

341 

124 

30 

4.68 

1875 

231 

318 

162 

31 

5.65 

1876 

162 

273 

132 

30 

4.41 

1877 

178 

230 

173 

38 

4.49 

1878 

202 

221 

205 

57 

3.56 

1879 

208 

224 

208 

63 

3.30 

1880 

244 

293 

186 

61 

3.04 

1881 

312 

299 

233 

66 

3.50 

1882 

355 

351 

226 

74 

3.53 

1883 

395 

463 

191 

59 

3.23 

1884 

427 

489 

195 

54 

3.60 

1885 

446 

662 

150 

43 

3.51 

1886 

634 

656 

214 

54 

3.91 

1887 

662 

•  731 

202 

51 

3.96 

1888 

873 

725 

269 

63 

4.24 

1889 

893 

779 

256 

60 

4.21 

1890 

1061 

910 

261 

50 

4.50 

1891 

1173 

900 

292 

60 

4.78 

1892 

1178 

840 

314 

61 

5.08 

1893 

1141 

770 

332 

64 

5.18 

1894 

919 

678 

304 

64 

4.84 

1895 

902 

638 

317 

61 

5.13 

1896 

831 

605 

308 

65 

4.72 

1897 

828 

539 

332 

68 

4.82 

1898 

782 

483 

363 

68 

4.68 

1899 

954 

473 

452 

77 

4.90 

1900 

946 

489 

433 

88 

4.90 

1901 

921 

437 

472 

98 

4.82 

1902 

988 

455 

486 

112 

4.34 

1903 

1135 

479 

531 

117 

4.54 

1904 

1064 

427 

558 

119 

4.69 

1905 

1198 

393 

683 

114 

5.09 

1906 

1174 

402 

654 

140 

4.67 

1907 

1056 

364 

650 

151 

4.30 

1908 

800 

296 

574 

131 

4.38 

1909 

888 

301 

661 

145 

4.56 

1910 

906 

287 

707 

159 

4.44 

1911 

790 

255 

694 

154 

4.50 

1912 

702 

221 

711 

157 

4.53 

1913 

652 

200 

730 

169 

4.32 

1914 

588 

208 

633 

1915 

570 

178 

964 

^1916 

655 

206 

713 

1917 

681 

212 

720 

1918 

549 

166 

740 

1919 

839 

253 

743 

1920 

1100 

308       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

1890  each  firm  used  on  the  average  approximately  one 
page  annually.  About  the  year  1890  the  real  struggle 
for  existence  set  in  among  advertisements,  and  that  is 
the  time  to  which  we  must  look  for  the  survival  of  the 
fittest.  If  the  small  advertisements  had  been  the  most 
profitable,  then  the  users  of  small  spaces  would  have 
survived  and  would  have  appeared  in  the  following  years. 
Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  In  that  fierce  struggle 
the  small  spaces  proved  to  be  incapable  of  competing 
with  the  larger  spaces,  and  we  find  in  the  succeeding 
years  that  the  users  of  small  spaces  grew  gradually 
less.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  although  the  num- 
ber of  advertisers  has  decreased,  the  amount  of  space 
used  has  increased.  This  process  is  still  continuing. 
The  year  1907  was  almost  identical  with  the  year  1890 
as  to  the  total  advertising  space,  but  showed  a  decrease 
of  sixty  per  cent,  in  the  number  of  firms  advertising, 
while  the  average  amount  of  space  used  by  each  adver- 
tiser has  increased  one  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent.  This 
pronounced  increase  in  space  and  decrease  in  the  num- 
ber of  advertisers  is  perhaps  the  most  astounding  fact 
observed  in  the  development  of  advertising  in  America. 
It  is  not  to  be  assumed  that  the  size  of  a  poor  adver- 
tisement will  keep  it  from  failure  any  more  than  the 
age  of  a  consumptive  will  be  of  supreme  moment  in 
determining  his  probable  length  of  life.  Neither  is  it 
to  be  assumed  that  all  classes  of  merchandise  can  use 
full  pages  with  profit  and  that  no  classes  of  business 
can  be  more  successful  when  using  small  spaces  than 
when  using  larger  ones.  The  point  which  should  be 
emphasized  is  that  the  size  of  an  advertisement  is  one 
of  the  vital  elements  and  that  every  advertising  agent 
or  manager  should  be  an  advertising  expert  and  should 
be  able  to  give  advice  as  to  the  size  of  an  advertisement 


MORTALITY  RATE  OF  ADVERTISERS     309 

which  would  be  the  most  profitable  to  present  any  par- 
ticular firm  with  any  particular  text  and  illustration. 

The  advertising  agents  and  managers  should  not  only 
be  experts,  able  to  give  such  advice,  but  they  should 
have  such  confidence  in  their  own  judgments  that  they 
would  refuse  to  handle  the  business  of  any  firm  which 
insisted  on  using  spaces  which  court  failure.  Every 
failure  is  an  injury  to  the  advertising  medium,  and  the 
results  of  a  failure  should  be  looked  upon  as  such  a 
serious  matter  that  periodicals  which  proved  unprofit- 
able in  a  large  proportion  of  cases  would  be  avoided. 
Physicians  are  regarded  as  experts  along  a  certain  line, 
and  if  patients  refuse  to  follow  their  advice  they  not  in- 
frequently refuse  to  treat  them  further.  The  lawyer  is 
an  expert  along  another  line  and  he  assumes  his  client 
will  take  his  advice,  and  is  ordinarily  correct  in  his  as- 
sumption. There  is  no  good  reason  why  the  advertising 
manager  or  agent  should  not  be  looked  upon  in  the  same 
way.  If  he  is  sincere  in  his  judgments,  and  if  he  has 
taken  account  of  the  advertising  experience  of  the  many 
and  not  of  the  few,  he  should  be  able  to  assist  the  pro- 
spective advertiser  in  avoiding  the  pitfalls  which  have 
been  the  destruction  of  a  very  large  proportion  of  all 
firms  that  have  attempted  to  advertise. 

Advertising  can  no  longer  be  said  to  be  in  its  infancy. 
It  has  now  reached  mature  years,  and  it  is  high  time  that 
the  professional  advertising  men  should  awake  to  their 
responsibility  and  display  the  same  wisdom  that  is  dis- 
played by  the  physician  and  the  lawyer.  A  physician 
prides  himself  not  only  in  the  number  of  his  patients, 
but  also  in  the  low  death-rate  of  his  patients.  I  believe 
that  the  day  is  soon  coming,  and  indeed  is  now  here, 
when  the  advertising  managers  of  our  periodicals  will 
pride  themselves  in  the  low  mortality-rate  of  their  adver- 


310       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

tisers  rather  than  in  the  total  number  of  advertising 
pages  appearing  monthly.  ,  In  the  end  the  magazine 
which  has  the  lowest  mortality-rate  will  of  course  be  the 
most  profitable  both  to  the  buyer  and  to  the  seller  of 
space.  Because  of  the  psychological  effect  produced  by 
the  larger  spaces,  and  because  of  the  comparative  values 
of  large  and  of  small  spaces  as  given  above,  it  is  evident 
that  one  of  the  duties  of  the  advertising  manager  and 
agent  is  to  insist  on  the  use  of  adequate  space  and  to  be 
able  to  advise  what  is  adequate  space  in  any  particular 
case. 


NEXT  TO  READING  MATTER  311 


XXIV 

THE  VALUE  OF  ADVERTISING  SPACE 
NEXT  TO  READING  MATTER 

One  of  the  most  perplexing  and  widely  discussed 
problems  in  magazine  advertising  to-day  is  this :  Is  ad- 
vertising space  segregated  at  the  two  ends  of  the  maga- 
zine more  valuable  or  less  valuable  than  space  next  to 
reading  matter?  Among  my  friends  who  are  advertisers 
or  who  are  in  advertising  agencies  there  was  neither 
a  consensus  of  opinion  nor  sufficient  data  for  reaching 
a  satisfactory  conclusion.  For  the  purpose  of  securing 
more  data,  the  following  letter  was  sent  to  the  leading 
advertisers  and  agencies  using  space  in  American  maga- 
zines : 

Northwestern  University,  August  23. 

Dear  Sir, — Certain  influential  manufacturers  with  national 
distribution  are  convinced  that  an  advertisement  placed  next 
to  reading  matter  (such  as  an  interesting  story)  is  placed  in 
a  preferred  position. 

Other  manufacturers  prefer  to  have  their  advertisement 
located  in  the  section  of  the  publication  set  aside  for  advertise- 
ments. Their  conviction  is  based  on  the  theory  that  good  read- 
ing matter  and  good  advertising  matter  on  the  same  page 
conflict. 

Both  parties  to  the  dispute  seem  to  base  their  faith  upon 
opinion  rather  than  upon  fact.  The  question  is  one  of  such 
great  importance  to  the  science  of  advertising  that  I  feel  justi- 
fied in  asking  for  your  co-operation  in  an  attempt  to  secure  the 
truth. 

1.  Do  you  know  of  any  evidence  (facts  and  not  opinions)  that 
advertising  next  to  reading  matter  is  of  greater  value  to  the 
advertiser  than  advertising  space  massed  at  the  two  ends  of 
the  magazine? 


312       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

2.  Have  you  any  facts  to  show  the  contrary  to  be  true?    Or 

3.  Have  you  data  to  prove  that  the  matter  of  location  in  no 
way  affects  the  power  of  the  advertisement  to  influence  the 
reader? 

If  you  have  such  evidence,  and  would  entrust  me  with  it,  I 
assure  you  that  it  will  be  used  in  a  manner  entirely  satisfac- 
tory to  you. 

A  letter  similar  to  this  is  being  sent  to  some  of  the  leading 
advertisers  in  America.  If  you  so  desire  I  will  report  to  you 
an  analysis  of  the  answers,  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  the 
confidential  nature  of  the  replies. 

For  your  convenience  a  self-directed  envelope  is  enclosed 
for  reply. 

Walter  Dill  Scott. 

Eeplies  were  received  from  five  hundred  and  eighty 
advertisers  and  from  one  hundred  and  ninety-six 
agencies.  In  some  instances  several  members  of  the  firm 
sent  separate  answers.  Each  of  these  is  listed  as  an  in- 
dependent reply. 

Of  the  five  hundred  and  eighty  advertisers,  thirty -four, 
or  almost  six  per  cent.,  present  facts  to  prove  that  ad- 
vertising space  in  the  segregated  advertising  sections  is 
of  more  value  than  space  next  to  reading  matter. 

Of  the  five  hundred  and  eighty  advertisers,  sixty,  or 
almost  ten  per  cent.,  present  facts  to  prove  that  space 
next  to  reading  matter  is  more  valuable  than  space  in  the 
segregated  advertising  sections. 

Of  the  five  hundred  and  eighty  advertisers,  fifty-four, 
or  a  little  less  than  ten  per  cent.,  present  no  facts,  but 
express  the  opinion  that  space  in  the  segregated  adver- 
tising sections  is  more  valuable  than  space  next  to  read- 
ing matter. 

Of  the  five  hundred  and  eighty  advertisers,  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-one,  or  a  little  over  twenty-two  per  cent., 
present  no  facts,  but  express  the  opinion  that  space  next 


NEXT  TO  READING  MATTER  313 

to  reading  matter  is  superior  to  that  in  segregated  adver- 
tising sections. 

Of  the  five  hundred  and  eighty  firms,  three  hundred 
and  one,  or  almost  fifty-two  per  cent.,  assert  that  there  is 
no  difference  in  the  value  of  space  in  the  two  classes  of 
magazines ;  that  they  are  undecided  in  their  opinion,  or 
fail  to  include  in  their  reply  any  facts  or  expression  of 
opinion  bearing  on  the  topic. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  advertising  agency 
respondents,  twelve,  or  a  little  over  six  per  cent.,  present 
facts  to  prove  that  space  in  the  segregated  advertising 
sections  is  more  valuable  than  space  next  to  reading 
matter. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  advertising  agency 
respondents,  twenty-seven,  or  a  little  less  than  fourteen 
per  cent.,  present  facts  to  prove  that  space  next  to  read- 
ing matter  is  more  valuable  than  space  in  the  segregated 
advertising  sections. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  agency  respondents, 
nine,  or  a  little  less  than  five  per  cent.,  present  no  facts, 
but  express  the  opinion  that  space  in  the  segregated  ad- 
vertising sections  is  of  more  value  than  space  next  to 
reading  matter. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  agency  respondents, 
fifty-four,  or  twenty-eight  per  cent.,  present  no  facts,  but 
express  the  opinion  that  space  next  to  reading  matter  is 
more  valuable  than  space  in  segregated  advertising 
sections. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  agency  respondents, 
ninety-nine,  or  almost  fifty-one  per  cent.,  present  no 
facts,  but  express  the  opinion  that  there  is  no  difference 
in  value  between  space  in  segregated  sections  and  that 
next  to  reading  matter;  that  their  evidence  is  not  con- 
clusive; or  they  present  neither  facts  nor  opinions. 


Facts 

for 

standards. 

Facts 

for 
flats. 

Opinions 

for 
standards. 

Opinions 

for 

flats. 

Advertisers.  .34  (6%) 

Agencies 12  (6%) 

Total 46 

Total  per  cent.        6% 

60  (10%) 
27  (14%) 
87 

11% 

54  (10%) 
9  (   5%) 
63 

8% 

131  (22%) 
54  (28%) 
185 

24% 

314       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  agency  respondents, 
five  present  data  from  one  group  of  clients  indicating 
the  superiority  of  segregated  space,  and  from  another 
group  of  clients  indicating  the  superiority  of  space  next 
to  reading  matter.  These  five  firms  are,  of  course, 
included  in  both  the  six  per  cent,  and  the  fourteen  per 
cent,  as  presented  above. 


Undecided.  Total. 

301  (52%)     580 

99  (51%)      201 

400  781 

52% 

The  one  hundred  and  ninetif-six  advertisers  are  here  tabulated  as  two  hun- 
dred and  one,  as  five  presented  data  on  toth  sides  of  the  debate. 

Extracts  are  presented  herewith  from  typical  examples 
of  the  thirty-four  letters  from  advertisers  who  present 
facts  to  prove  the  superiority  of  space  in  segregated  ad- 
vertising sections. 

Taking  the  magazines  on  our  list  in  which  it  is  customary 
to  put  the  advertising  matter  next  to  reading  matter,  such  as 
Leslie's,  Literary  Digest,  and  McClure's,  and  comparing  the  re- 
turns from  these  magazines  with  the  ones  in  which  the  adver- 
tising pages  are  grouped  in  the  back  and  front  of  the  magazine, 
such  as  the  World's  Work,  System,  Review  of  Reviews,  Cosmo- 
politan, Outlook,  etc.,  I  find  that  each  sale  from  the  magazines 
in  which  advertising  appeared  next  to  reading  matter  cost  us 
9.7  per  cent,  more  than  in  the  other  group.  Also,  that  the  cost 
per  inquiry  increased  57.4  per  cent,  in  the  next-to-reading  maga- 
zines. I  further  find  that  the  average  number  of  inquiries  re- 
ceived from  magazines  which  group  the  advertising  increased 
41.1  per  cent,  over  the  average  number  of  inquiries  received 
from  magazines  in  which  the  advertising  appears  next  to  read- 
ing matter. 

In  the  magazines  which  figured  in  the  above  statistics  we 
used  the  same  series  of  advertisements,  each  advertisement  ap- 
pearing once  in  each  of  the  magazines,  but  not  necessarily  in 
the  same  month.  The  whole  series  was  run  in  each  of  the 
mediums,  though.  (Insurance.) 


NEXT  TO  READING  MATTER  315 

In  the  standard  magazines  which  carry  a  large  advertising 
section,  such  as  Everybody's  and  System,  we  have  found  that 
our  advertisements  when  massed  with  the  advertisements  of 
the  business  world  in  a  definite  advertising  section,  that  is,  not 
cut  up  with  reading  matter,  have  proved  to  be  more  effective 
and  more  powerful  to  get  results.  We  have  reason  to  believe 
that  in  the  standard  magazine  size  publications  of  this  nature, 
the  policy  of  massing  the  advertisements  in  a  bunch  is  much 
better  for  both  the  reader  and  the  advertiser.      (Typewriters.) 

The  only  evidence  on  which  we  can  base  our  opinion  is  that 
of  the  number  of  inquiries  which  we  receive  from  advertise- 
ments. In  the  Post,  for  instance,  in  which  our  advertisement 
was  placed  next  to  reading  matter,  the  inquiry  cost  was  $7.50, 
and  in  the  Literary  Digest,  in  which  the  advertisement  was 
placed  next  to  reading  matter,  the  cost  was  $3.50.  In  the 
Cosmopolitan  the  cost  per  inquiry  was  $3.41.  In  this  magazine, 
as  you  know,  the  advertisements  are  all  together.  You  will 
probably  be  interested  in  the  attached  summary  covering  our 
advertising  for  the  fiscal  year  beginning  July,  1914,  and  ending 
June,  1915. 

Cost  Per 
Inquiry. 

Saturday  Evening  Post $7.40 

Literary  Digest 3.50 

Harper's 5.87 

National  Geographic 4.17 

Cosmopolitan   3.41 

Everybody's   6.23 

Century    6.59 

Scrihner's    7.69 

Review  of  Reviews 4.35 

Current   Opinion 3.26 

Outlook   6.09 

World's  Work 3.05 

Good  Housekeeping 3.81 

C.  L.  in  America 3.78 

House  Beautiful 2.05 

Munsey's  6.50 

(Lighting  Systems.) 


316       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  sixty  letters  of 
advertisers  presenting  facts  indicating  the  superiority 
of  advertising  space  next  to  reading  matter : 

Referring  to  your  circular  letter  of  the  23d,  in  answer  to  your 
question  number  one:  We  consider  an  advertisement  placed 
next  to  reading  matter  has  at  least  fifty  per  cent,  more  value 
than  a  similar  advertisement  buried  in  the  midst  of  a  heavy 
advertising  section.  , 

Second:  Our  records  are  in  such  shape  that  we  cannot  very 
well  give  you  the  data  concerning  this,  but  we  have  found  in- 
variably that  the  replies  from  any  given  advertisement  are 
much  greater  when  situated  as  above  than  when  buried  in  the 
advertising  section.  (Fountain  Pen.) 

In  1914  we  made  up  our  list  on  an  entirely  different  basis 
than  in  previous  years.  We  used  twenty-nine  publications  and 
we  made  effort  to  secure  positions  next  to  reading  matter.  Pub- 
lications such  as  the  Cosmopolitan  and  Everybody's  we  had 
used  for  years,  but  we  dropped  them  from  our  list  on  the  theory 
that  very  few  readers  would  take  the  trouble  to  wade  through 
one  hundred  or  more  solid  pages  of  advertising. 

We  give  preference  to  publications  that  run  reading  matter 
and  advertising  matter  on  the  same  page,  although  we  used 
McClure's  where  the  advertising  was  opposite  reading  matter. 
With  a  few  exceptions,  among  them  Harper's  and  World's 
Work,  we  stuck  to  our  specifications. 

Eesults:  We  received  many  times  the  largest  volume  of  in- 
quiries we  had  received  in  any  one  previous  year  and  they  came 
in  over  a  longer  period.  Our  direct  sales  to  consumers  in  towns 
where  we  had  no  dealer  distribution  showed  four  thousand 
per  cent,  increase.  (Underwear.) 

Our  records  of  mail  orders  received  show  that  the  magazines 
running  their  advertisements  next  to  reading  matter  produced 
mail  orders  at  half  the  cost  of  the  standard  magazines.  This 
was  not  only  so  in  one  case,  but  out  of  the  three  or  four  maga- 
zines we  used  running  ads  next  to  reading  it  held  out  in  every 
case  against  about  five  different  standard  magazines  we  used. 

(Household  Chemical.) 


NEXT  TO  READING  MATTER  317 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  fifty-four  letters 
of  advertisers  expressing  the  opinion  that  space  in  the 
segregated  advertising  sections  of  magazines  is  superior 
to  the  space  next  to  reading  matter : 

Personally,  I  lean  to  the  idea  that  advertising  should  all  be 
placed  in  one  section  of  the  magazine,  as  when  a  man  is  reading 
a  s'tory,  he  is  not  interested  in  advertising.  I  myself  pick  up 
a  magazine  and  look  over  the  advertisements  with  as  much 
interest  as  I  take  in  the  reading  matter,  but  I  do  not  like  it  all 
mixed  in  together.  (Furniture.) 

From  my  own  personal  standpoint,  would  state  in  my  opinion, 
advertising  is  more  effective  when  placed  in  the  proper  part  of 
a  paper  or  magazine,  and  not  next  to  reading  matter,  for  people 
who  are  reading  are  not  looking  for  advertising  matter,  and 
persons  looking  for  ads  are  not  looking  for  reading  matter. 

(Hardware.) 

Personally  I  have  lost  faith  in  advertising  next  to  reading 
matter  to  quite  an  extent,  especially  where  the  advertisements 
appear  alongside  of  the  stories  continued  from  forward  part 
of  magazine,  for  the  reason  that  one  is  most  generally  too  inter- 
ested in  the  story  to  stop  to  look  or  even  notice  the  ads. 

(Automobile.) 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  one  hundred  and 
thirty-one  letters  of  advertisers  expressing  the  opinion 
that  space  next  to  reading  matter  is  more  valuable  than 
space  in  segregated  advertising  sections : 

My  opinion  is  that  advertising  is  always  very  much  more  ef- 
fective Avhen  placed  next  to  reading  matter,  and  that  its  effi- 
ciency is  very  much  decreased  by  its  being  in  the  middle  of  an 
advertising  section  of  many  pages.  (Steel.) 

Sorry  to  have  to  advise  you  that  I  have  no  definite  evidence 
to  submit  in  this  connection  although  I  have  a  very  definite 
opinion  to  the  effect  that  an  advertisement  is  much  more  valu- 
able when  next  to  reading  matter  than  when  buried  in  the  back 
pages  in  a  magazine.  (Trunks.) 


318       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  three  hundred 
and  one  letters  of  advertisers  who  present  neither  facts 
nor  decided  opinions : 

It  has  been  our  policy  in  the  class  of  publications  such  as 
Country  Life,  House  Beautiful,  etc.,  to  place  our  copy  in  the 
advertising  section,  inasmuch  as  it  is  our  belief  that  the  read- 
ers of  this  class  of  publications  quite  frequently  gather  their 
information  from  the  advertising  pages. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  tlie  popular  women's  publications,  like 
the  Ladies'  Home  Journal  and  Woman's  Home  Companion,  we 
prefer  space  alongside  of  the  reading  matter.  Perhaps  this  is 
due  to  the  diversity  of  advertising  matter  in  such  popular  pub- 
lications, and  because  a  large  number  of  readers  are  not  inter- 
ested in  one 'particular  line,  as  are  the  readers  of  such  publica- 
tions as  Country  Life.  This  practice  of  ours  is  based  entirely 
upon  our  o^vn  impressions  and  advertising  counsel,  and  not 
upon  data.  (Chinaware.) 

To  your  circular  letter  dated  August  23d,  we  do  not  know  of 
any  evidence  that  advertising  next  to  reading  matter  is  of 
greater  value  to  the  advertiser  than  the  advertising  space 
massed  at  the  two  ends  of  the  magazine.  Nor  have  we  any 
facts  to  show  the  contrary  to  be  true. 

It  is  our  opinion  that  the  matter  of  location  does  not  affect 
the  power  of  the  advertisement  to  influence  the  reader.  It  is 
all  in  the  ad  and  the  medium.  (Underwear.) 

The  following  are  extracts  from  the  twelve  letters 
from  agencies  possessing  facts  indicating  that  space  in 
the  segregated  advertising  sections  of  magazines  is  more 
valuable  than  space  next  to  reading  matter : 

From  our  experience,  particularly  with  keyed  mail-order 
copy,  we  would  say  that  advertising  space  massed  at  the  two 
ends  of  a  magazine  is  of  greater  value  to  the  advertiser  than 
advertising  distributed  through  the  reading  pages. 

The  publications  which  use  the  former  arrangement  gener- 
ally pay  better  for  us.  This  may  be  due,  however,  to  the  intrin- 
sic value  of  the  mediums  rather  than  to  the  position  of  the 
advertising. 


NEXT  TO  READING  MATTER  319 

It  seems  to  us  that  the  points  you  mention  in  your  letter  of 
August  23d  could  best  be  cleared  up  by  taking  the  experience 
of  manufacturers  who  expect  direct  results  from  their  adver- 
tising, such  as  mail-order  houses. 

It  has  been  our  experience  in  handling  a  number  of  such  ac- 
counts that  the  question  of  position  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant factors. 

The  one  magazine  which  has  proved  our  biggest  puller  on  a 
number  of  propositions  happens  to  be  standard  size. 

In  a  textile  account  which  received  about  one  hundred  thou- 
sand replies  per  year  on  an  advertising  expenditure  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  thousand  dollars,  a  standard  magazine — with  adver- 
tising at  the  front  and  back  of  the  book  and  not  next  to  reading 
matter — brought  returns  direct  at  a  lower  cost  than  any  of  the 
next-to-reading-matter  magazines.  All  the  magazines  were  cut 
off  that  did  not  bring  replies  at  less  than  20c.  each.  The  goods 
were  intended  for  women.  The  various  women's  publications 
brought  returns  at  from  14c.  to  18c.  each.  The  standard  size 
women's  publications  brought  returns  at  about  13c. 

Looking  over  records  of  returns  covering  several  years,  a 
sporting-goods  account  has  always  had  its  lowest-cost  returns 
from  a  standard-shape  publication. 

For  several  years  a  toilet-goods  manufacturer  has  gotten  his 
lowest  returns  from  general  magazines,  from  two  magazines 
of  standard  size.  The  next-to-reading-matter  magazines  have 
not  been  able  to  overtake  these  two  publications  in  the  pro  rata 
low  cost  of  direct  replies. 

A  manufacturer  of  supplies  used  by  business  houses  to  handle 
the  details  of  their  business  got  his  lowest  cost  of  replies  from 
a  standard-size  magazine  with  the  advertising  not  running  next 
nor  opposite  reading  matter.  The  second  and  third  magazines 
were  standard-size  magazines  in  the  low  cost  of  direct  replies. 

The  manufacturer  of  a  household  article  classed  as  furniture 
also  got  his  lowest  replies  from  a  standard-size  magazine. 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  twenty-seven 
letters  from  agencies  presenting  facts  to  prove  that  space 
next  to  reading  matter  is  superior  to  space  in  the  segre- 
gated advertising  sections : 


320       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

In  a  number  of  our  advertising  campaigns  where  the  results 
are  carefully  tabulated  I  have  found  repeatedly  that  the  maga- 
zines, when  placed  in  the  order  of  their  showing  in  results, 
give  strong  evidence  in  favor  of  those  which  place  advertise- 
ments next  to  reading  matter.  The  magazines  in  the  front  of 
the  list  are  nearly  all  of  this  character,  whereas  those  that 
bulk  the  advertising  in  the  back  of  the  book  without  reading 
matter  almost  always  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  list. 

On  several  mail  order  lists  we  have  in  this  office,  we  have 
found,  over  a  number  of  years'  test,  that  most  all  of  the  publi- 
cations that  do  the  best  are  those  which  carry  advertising  next 
to  reading  matter. 

The  evidence  we  have  to  offer  that  advertising  next  to  reading 
is  of  greater  value  than  if  massed  in  the  front  or  back  of  the 
magazine,  is  that  our  mail-order  advertising  accounts  actually 
produce  a  lower  cost  of  inquiry  and  of  sale  in  publications 
where  position  is  given  next  to  reading;  this  where  rate  for 
quantity  of  circulation  is  proportionately  the  same.  A  canvass 
of  lists  used  for  three  or  four  years  back  shows  that  on  mail- 
order accounts  approximately  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  papers 
were  those  where  advertising  was  given  position  alongside  read- 
ing and  ten  per  cent,  where  advertising  was  bulked  in  the  front 
or  back  of  the  magazine. 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  nine  letters  from 
agencies  expressing  the  opinion  that  space  in  the  segre- 
gated advertising  sections  is  superior  to  space  next  to 
reading  matter : 

Our  belief  is  that  people  have  becpme  accustomed  to  reading 
advertisements  from  force  of  habit,  and  not  by  accident.  And 
an  advertisement  placed  alongside  of  reading  matter  that  might 
attract  attention  would  either  detract  from  the  article  being 
written,  or  might  be  forgotten  after  the  story  is  finished,  and 
the  reader  would  not  take  the  trouble  to  go  back  and  locate 
the  advertisement. 

When  a  reader  opens  a  magazine  and  starts  reading  the  ad- 
vertising section,  his  mind  is  in  a  receptive  mood  for  the  oppor- 
tunities offered,  and  the  advertisement,  we  believe,  is  much  more 
effective  as  a  result  of  this. 


NEXT  TO  READING  MATTER  321 

I  have  your  interesting  letter  of  August  23d,  and  regret  to 
say  I  can  throw  no  definite  information  on  the  point  you  raise, 
as  I  have  never  been  able  to  check  up  the  pulling  quality  of 
advertising  next  to  reading  matter.  My  opinion,  and  it  is  only 
an  opinion,  is  that  it  does  not  matter  where  the  advertisement 
is.  Personally,  I  would  rather  have  it  away  from  reading  mat- 
ter, if  it  is  so  set  up,  or  in  such  a  position  as  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  reader. 

I  am  further  of  the  opinion  that  when  the  mind  is  engaged 
in  following  the  thought  conveyed  by  the  type  pages,  the  force 
of  the  advertising  appeal  is  weakened  when  it  is  next  to  reading 
matter,  for  the  mind  is  diverted  from  the  idea  of  the  letterpress 
to  the  foreign  idea  of  the  advertisement. 

The  segregation  of  advertisements,  as  in  the  magazines,  has 
become  a  tradition.  People  know  where  to  find  the  printed  ap- 
peal to  buy,  Buy,  Buy;  and  prepare  an  elastic  mind  ready  to 
absorb.  Folks  examine  an  advertising  section  of  a  magazine 
as  they  would  look  for  the  title-page  of  a  book  or  the  index 
thereof. 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  fifty-four  letters 
from  agencies  expressing  the  opinion  that  space  next  to 
reading  matter  is  more  valuable  than  space  in  the  segre- 
gated advertising  sections. 

Everything  after  all  comes  back  to  a  matter  of  opinion.  I 
have  worked  with  advertisers  for  twenty  years,  and  I  have 
found  that,  without  exception,  all  advertisers  have  a  predilec- 
tion for  position  next  to  reading  and  for  other  preferred  posi- 
tions such  as  back  cover,  first  page  facing  reading,  or  top  of 
column  next  reading  in  newspapers.  Whether  this  is  a  tradi- 
tion handed  down,  or  whether  it  is  a  hunch  based  upon  some 
actual  scientific  facts,  I  do  not  know. 

My  own  personal  opinion  is  that  an  advertisement  next  to 
reading  is  enhanced,  not  so  much  by  the  interest  of  the  reader 
in  the  reading  matter,  but  by  the  display  given  to  contrast  be- 
tween the  advertisement  and  the  uniform  gray  of  straight 
matter. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  hazard  the  opinion  which  is  almost  axio- 
matic in  the  advertising  business— that  positions  next  to  read- 


322       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISINO 

ing  matter  are  more  valuable  than  other  positions,  and  my  in- 
stinctive feeling  is  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  this  is  true. 

In  reply  to  your  recent  letter  addressed  to  a  member  of  our 
staff  on  the  question,  whether  advertisements  placed  in  maga- 
zines next  to  reading  matter  enjoy  preferred  position,  that  is, 
are  more  valuable  to  advertisers  viewed  from  the  point  of  re- 
sults, we  wish  on  the  strength  of  experience  of  years,  to  answer 
affirmatively.  Such  positions  are  undoubtedly  preferable  to 
those  of  ads  massed  at  the  two  ends  of  a  magazine. 

We  ourselves  have  not  collected  data  on  this  subject,  but 
from  cases  where  we  had  occasion  to  learn  of  advertisers'  ex- 
perience, we  have  found  that  ads  with  preferred  position  have 
always  brought  not  only  better  results,  but  were  of  immediate 
action. 

Logically  this  stands  to  reason,  for  magazines  are  not  bought 
primarily  for  the  advertising  they  contain,  but  for  the  reading 
matter  they  contain.  The  reader's  first  attention  goes  to  the 
articles,  essays  and  stories,  and  then  if  he  is  not  tired  out,  he 
begins  to  look  to  the  ads.  If,  hoAvever,  an  ad  is  next  to  reading 
matter,  it  attracts  the  reader's  attention  at  once.  It  actually 
forces  itself  upon  the  reader. 

The  following  extracts  are  from  the  ninety-nine  letters 
from  advertisers  who  present  neither  facts  nor  opinions 
as  evidence  for  either  side  of  the  controversy. 

I  have  no  evidence  that  advertising  next  to  reading  matter  is 
of  greater  value  to  the  advertiser  than  advertising  space  massed 
at  the  two  ends  of  the  magazines.  The  tendency  of  standard 
magazines  to  alter  their  forms  so  as  to  place  more  advertise- 
ments next  to  reading,  seems  to  point  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
easier  to  sell  space  next  to  reading  matter  than  it  is  among 
solid  advertising. 

We  have  no  facts  to  present  with  regard  to  the  general  prob- 
lem because  any  conclusions  we  have  reached  in  this  regard 
have  proven  themselves  to  be  fallacious  in  some  way. 

A  study  of  these  seven  hundred  and  seventy-six  replies 
leaves  one  with  certain  very  definite  convictions : 

First :  For  certain  classes  of  goods  and  under  certain 


NEXT  TO  READING  MATTER  .  323 

conditions  there  is  a  clear  difference  in  the  value  of  space 
in  segregated  advertising  sections  and  space  next  to 
reading  matter.  For  schools,  books,  railroads,  resorts, 
and  investments,  space  in  segregated  sections  is  more 
valuable  than  space  next  to  reading  matter.  Space  next 
to  reading  matter  is  more  valuable  than  space  in  the 
segregated  advertising  sections  for  advertisements  of 
silk  if  the  advertisement,  is  placed  next  to  an  article  on 
dresses  or  internal  household  decorations ;  for  advertise- 
ments of  seeds  if  placed  next  to  an  article  on  gardening ; 
for  advertisements  of  almost  any  class  of  goods  if  placed 
next  to  an  article  dealing  with  the  use  of  the  goods 
advertised. 

Second:  Space  in  some  standard  magazines  is  more 
valuable  than  space  in  certain  flat  magazines  for  almost 
any  class  of  goods ;  but  space  in  some  flat  magazines  is 
more  valuable  than  space  in  certain  standard  magazines 
for  almost  any  class  of  advertising. 

Third:  The  conflicting  evidence  in  the  data  and  in 
the  opinions  presented  by  the  experts,  and  the  absence 
of  conviction  on  the  part  of  so  many  of  them,  make  it 
evident  that  segregated  vs.  next  to  reading  matter  is  not 
the  controlling  factor  in  value  of  advertising  space.  The 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  circulation,  the  responsive- 
ness developed  in  the  readers,  and  other  contributing 
factors,  must  be  considered  in  each  instance  before  any 
definite  conclusion  can  be  reached  as  to  the  value  of 
advertising  space  in  any  particular  magazine. 


324       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 


XXV 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  EXPEEIMENT 

The  introduction  of  the  experimental  method  is  a 
modern  innovation  in  the  case  of  all  the  sciences.  Occa- 
sional experiments  had  been  made  in  each  of  the  sci- 
ences before  experimental  laboratories  were  established, 
but  with  the  founding  of  laboratories  for  experimental 
purposes,  physics,  chemistry,  geology,  physiology,  and 
botany  became  established  on  a  new  and  firmer  basis. 

Occasional  and  haphazard  experiments  had  been  made 
in  psychology  ever  since  the  days  of  Aristotle,  but.  no 
systematic  attempt  had  been  made  to  apply  experi- 
mental methods  to  psychology  till  1880.  At  this  date 
Professor  Wundt,  of  Leipzig,  established  the  first  psy- 
chological laboratory.  Since  that  date  similar  labora- 
tories have  been  established  in  all  the  leading  universi- 
ties of  the  world. 

To  avoid  error  as  to  the  conception  of  the  function  of 
a  psychological  laboratory,  it  should  be  held  firmly  in 
mind  that  psychological  laboratories  have  nothing  to  do 
with  telepathy,  spiritism,  clairvoyance,  animal  magnet- 
ism, mesmerism,  fortune-telling,  crystal-gazing,  palm- 
istry, astrology,  witchcraft,  or  with  any  other  of  the 
relics  of  the  cults  of  medieval  superstition.  It  is  true' 
that  the  question  of  occult  thought  transference  in  its 
various  forms  has  been  put  to  the  test  in  a  few  of  the 
laboratories,  but  as  none  of  these  superstitions  have  been 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EXPERIMENT  325 

able  to  stand  the  test  they  have  been  discarded  as  worth- 
less hypotheses.  Quite  extensive  and  elaborate  tests  have 
been  made  with  telepathy,  but  as  the  results  secured 
were  so  meager,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there  is  not  a  direc- 
tor of  any  psychological  laboratory  in  Germany  or 
America  ( most  of  the  laboratories  are  in  these  two  coun- 
tries) who  has  any  faith  in  it. 

In  frequent  association  with  the  cults  mentioned  above 
are  certain  other  phenomena  which  have  proven  them- 
selves to  be  worthy  of  consideration  and  which  do  occupy 
a  place  in  a  laboratory.  Among  such  phenomena  are 
hypnotism  and  what  might  be  classed  as  prodigies  or 
^'freaks."  To-day  no  one  doubts  the  existence  of  hypno- 
tism, but  it  is  understood  as  something  so  different  from 
what  it  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  that  it  is  robbed 
of  its  mysterious  and  uncanny  connections.  A  mathe- 
matical prodigy  is  not  regarded  as  an  individual  who 
holds  relationship  with  an  evil  spirit,  but  as  a  person 
abnormally  developed  in  a  particular  direction.  Hypno- 
tism and  prodigies  play  such  a  subordinate  part  in  the 
workings  of  a  laboratory  that  it  would  not  be  worth 
while  to  mention  them  at  all  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact 
that  they  are  so  frequently  associated  with  the  theories 
which  were  mentioned  above  and  which  can  show  no 
good  reason  for  their  existence. 

Psychological  experiments  are  most  frequently  carried 
on  in  laboratories  especially  constructed  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  laboratory  for  some  experiments  may  be 
merely  a  convenient  place  for  meeting  and  a  place  free 
from  undesirable  disturbances,  or  it  may  be  rooms  fitted 
up  with  the  most  elaborate  sort  of  instruments  needed. 
In  experiments  in  which  the  element  of  time  enters,  in- 
struments are  employed  which  record  one  one-thou- 
sandth of  a  second  with  the  greatest  accuracy. 


326       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

The  nature  of  the  experiment  determines  the  kind 
of  apparatus  needed,  the  number  of  persons  who  should 
take  part,  the  method  to  be  pursued,  and  the  place  to  be 
chosen.  Great  ingenuity  has  been  shown  in  construct- 
ing apparatus,  devising  methods,  and  controlling  the 
conditions  of  experiments.  The  experiment  may  be 
simple  and  call  for  almost  no  equipment,  or  it  may  be 
intricate  and  call  for  years  of  investigation  and  an  enor- 
mous expenditure  of  money  to  create  the  necessary  con- 
ditions for  its  successful  investigation. 

In  general  a  psychological  experiment  is  a  psychologi- 
cal observation  made  under  "standard  conditions." 
Standard  conditions  are  those  which  may  be  repeated 
and  that  are  of  such  a  nature  that  the  various  conditions 
are  under  the  control  of  the  experimenter.  This  makes 
it  possible  for  one  investigator  to  perform  an  experiment 
and  to  have  his  work  verified  by  others  or  to  show 
wherein  the  first  experimenter  has  erred.  Standard 
conditions  are  ordinarily  of  such  a  nature  that  they  may 
be  varied,  that  non-essential  and  confusing  conditions 
may  be  eliminated,  the  various  causes  investigated  one 
by  one,  and  the  real  causes  given  and  the  object  of  the 
experiment  explained. 

The  nature  of  a  psychological  experiment  (the  kinds 
of  problems  that  may  be  attacked,  the  method  of  investi- 
gation, the  kind  of  results  secured,  and  the  treatment 
of  the  result)  can  be  understood  better  by  giving  a  con- 
crete example  than  by  any  complete  description.  The 
following  example  is  given  because  it  is  one  that  is  of 
special  significance  to  the  readers  of  these  pages  and 
because  it  is  so  simple  that  it  can  be  fully  described  in 
few  words. 

The  general  passenger  agent  of  one  of  the  leading  rail- 
road systems  was  constructing  a  new  time-table  for  the 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EXPERIMENT 


327 


entire  system.     A  dispute  arose  as  to  which  of  two  faces 
of  the  same  kinds  of  type  could  be  the  more  easily  read. 


»0  O  «  O  ui  N   O 
MS  m  n  0  N  o  1-1 

CM    M     M     M     O     O     ON 


e      <»o>aoeocooocooooor^r<«rsi 

Q      "^ 


CO 


o 
o 

J5 


OOOOOOOOs 


r^r«.cocococou>ioinioioioto 


s 


\rno  tnoo  VO  OnoO  t>.\0  \0  O-OO  0  ui  0 


\n  in 
O   O 


>s 


•■  •  :d     •   «  ■  ■ 


1    c^^g'J&^i^^^l-E 
k     <n  £-c  o  b  S  4^  t^'O  - 


O 


OOO 


1^    t^oo  00   o 


O  vO   •->  vO   o  -to 

5  o  M  «  «  CI  N 

M    N    N    N    M    v1    N 


'  •     59 


o  o   .  o  o 


The  body  of  the  type  was  the  same  in  both  cases,  but 

the  face  of  the  one  was  heavier  than  that  of  the  other. 

The  light-face  type  did  not  crowd  the  figures  so  closely 


328       THE  PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISI:N^G 


together  and  there  was  more  white  space  around  each 
figure  and  letter.     It  was  argued  by  the  advocates  of  this 


4> 

a. 


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forces  T- 

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i  =  S^i25^S':2sS 

e  i^Sg5ii  =  22|i 

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style  of  type  that  the  white  space  made  the  type  stand 
out  plainer  and  that  it  could  be  read  more  easily.  The 
advocates  of  the  heavy-face  type  argued  that  that  style 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EXPERIMENT  329 

of  type  looked  larger,  that  it  used  more  ink,  and  that  the 
figures  could  therefore  be  more  easily  read.  It  was  im^ 
possible  to  decide  which  was  the  more  legible  without 
putting  them  to  an  authoritative  test.  For  this  purpose 
specimens  of  both  styles  were  sent  to  the  psychological 
laboratory  of  the  Northwestern  University,  with  the 
request  that  each  style  be  tested  as  to  its  relative 
legibility. 

The  method  adopted  was  to  have  pages  taken  from  the 
time-table  set  up  in  both  styles  of  type.  A  number  of 
persons  were  then  requested  to  read  the  pages  as  fast  as 
possible.  The  manner  of  reading  was  the  same  as  that 
ordinarily  employed  by  the  traveling  public  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  reading  was  done  aloud  and  that  the 
entire  page  was  read  instead  of  a  part  of  it.  I  con- 
ducted all  experiments,  was  provided  with  duplicate 
sheets,  recorded  all  errors,  and  took  the  exact  time  of 
reading  with  a  stop  watch. 

Two  full  pages  were  taken  from  the  time-table  and 
each  page  was  set  up  in  both  styles  of  type,  thus  making 
four  sheets,  of  which  two  were  set  up  with  small-face 
type  and  two  with  large.  Each  sheet  was  marked  with  a 
letter,  and  the  four  sheets  are  indicated  as  Exhibit  C, 
Exhibit  D,  Exhibit  E,  and  Exhibit  F,  respectively. 

Exhibits  C  and  F  have  small-face  type,  as  shown  in 
Table  I.  Exhibits  D  and  E  have  large-face  type,  as 
shown  in  Table  II.  The  first  four  subjects  are  indicated 
by  initial  letters  of  their  names,  viz.,  R.  C,  N.  Z.,  J.  S., 
and  D.  W.  The  order  in  which  the  pages  were  read,  the 
time  required,  and  the  number  of  errors  made  are  indi- 
cated by  the  following  table : 


330       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 


C. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

- 

19' 26"  (6  errors) 

15' 48"  (1  error) 

R.  C.    «} 

15'  53"  (2  errors) 

17'  11"  (0  errors) 

r 

22'  28"  (19  errors) 

21'  36"  (17  errors) 

!!!!!'!"'!!!!!!: 

N.  Z.    } 

:;:::::::::":::: :;:;:;::;;;:::::; 



21' 11"  (27  errors) 

18'  5"  (13  errors) 

. 

15' 3"  (59  errors) 

16' 11"  (21  errors) 

J.  S.     \ 

15' 30"  (28  errors) 

15'  3j"  (27  errors) 

r 

22'  56''  (13  errors) 

20'  3"  (17  errors) 

D.  W.  \ 

20'  10''  (9  errors) 

1 

[ 

18'  39"  (7  errors) 



Total  time  for  four  persons  to  read  small  face  type    .... 
Total  time  for  four  persons  to  read  large  lace  type      .... 
Excess  of  time  required  for  four  persons  to  read  small  face  type 
Per  cent,  of  time  lost  by  four  persons  in  reading  small  face  type 
Total  errors  made  by  four  persons  reading  small  face  type 
Total  errors  made  by  four  persons  reading  large  face  type 
Excess  of  errors  made  by  four  persons  in  reading  small  face  type 
Per  cent,  of  excess  of  errors  in  reading  small  face  type   .     .     .     . 


150'  12" 

145'  22" 

4'  40" 

162 
104 

55l 


The  four  persons  who  took  part  in  the  experiment  as 
described  above  hardly  knew  what  was  expected  of  them 
and  had  had  no  experience  in  such  work.  ( Special  men- 
tion will  be  made  of  R.  C.  below. ) 

Two  additional  persons  were  tested  and  each  read  over 
the  list  of  stations  and  tried  reading  parts  of  the  pages 
before  beginning  the  experiment.  After  this  prelimi- 
nary drill  they  read  the  sheets  as  described  above,  but 
read  only  the  first  half  of  each  sheet. 

The  order  in  which  the  sheets  were  read,  the  time 
required,  and  the  number  of  errors  made  are  indicated 
in  the  following  table.  The  persons  are  indicated  by 
C.  W.  and  E.  S.  respectively: 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EXPERIMENT 


331 


c. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

,.  w  f 

9'  58"  (12  errors) 

;;;;;;;; i     ::::::: 

8'  52"  (4  errors) 

c.  w.  -> 

8'  34"  (2  errors) 

E.S.     ] 

6'  29"  (7  errors) 

6'  42"  (7  errors) 

5'  57"  (6  errors) 

5   39"  (6  errors) 

Total  time  for  two  persons  to  read  the  small  face  type 31'  28" 

Total  time  for  two  persons  to  read  the  large  face  type     .      .....     29'  34" 


Excess  of  time  required  to  read  the  small  face  type 

Per  cent,  of  time  lost  by  using  small  face  type 6^ 

Total  number  of  errors  made  by  two  persons  in  reading  small  face  type  35 

Total  number  of  errors  made  by  two  persons  in  reading  large  face  type  19 

Excess  of  errors  made  by  two  persons  in  reading  small  face  type  ...  16 

Per  cent,  of  increase  of  errors  by  use  of  small  face  type 84 


54" 


Of  the  first  four  subjects  R,  C.  is  an  employee  in  the 
general  passenger  department  of  the  railroad  for  which 
the  folder  was  being  investigated.  He  was  familiar  with 
the  names  of  the  stations  and  was  accustomed  to  reading 
this  particular  time-table.  The  first  page  which  he  read 
was  one  with  the  small  type.  The  other  subject  who 
began  with  the  small  type  was  my  brother  (J.  S.).  He 
knew  what  the  experiment  was  and  was  determined  to 
read  the  page  in  less  time  than  any  of  the  others.  He 
made  very  many  mistakes,  but  read  the  first  half  of  the 
first  sheet  (F)  in  six  minutes  and  fifty-two  seconds. 
None  of  the  other  four  subjects  even  approximated  such 
a  speed  or  made  so  many  mistakes — thij^ty-three.  He 
found  that  he  could  not  maintain  such  a  speed  through- 
out the  experiment.  The  two  of  the  four  subjects  who 
began  with  the  large-face  type,  namely,  ^.  Z.  and  D.  W., 
were  entirely  unfamiliar  with  the  time-table  and  lost 
time  in  getting  well  under  way.  Under  these  circum- 
stances it  seems  fair  to  regard  the  first  page,  which  each 
of  the  first  four  read,  as  merely  practice  sheets  and  to 
eliminate  them  in  the  final  results. 

Eliminating  the  first  sheet  which  each  of  the  four  first 


332        THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADVERTISING 

subjects  read,  and  uniting  the  results  for  all  the  six 
subjects,  we  get  the  following : 

Total  time  for  six  persons  to  read  small  face  type 147' ii* 

Total  time  for  six  persons  to  read  large  face  type        129*42" 

Excess  of  time  required  to  read  small  face  type 17' 29" 

Per  cent,  of  time  lost  by  using  small  face  type 13^ 

Total  errors  for  six  persons  reading  small  face  type 132 

Total  errors  for  six  persons  reading  large  face  type 91 

Excess  of  errors  for  small  face  type 41 

Percent,  of  increase  of  errors  by  use  of  small  face  type       ...        45 


These  figures  make  it  clear  that  the  large-face  type  is 
easier  to  read  and  is  not  so  subject  to  error  as  the  small- 
face  type. 

It  should  be  added  that  two  of  the  six  persons  com- 
plained that  the  small  type  was  hard  on  their  eyes,  and 
three  thought  that  tlie  small-face  type  was  much  harder 
to  read  than  the  large-face  type. 

The  test  with  R.  C.  was  made  in  the  office  of  the  presi- 
dent of  the  railroad  concerned,  and  twice  during  the 
experiments  R.  C.  was  interrupted  by  persons  calling  at 
the  door.  The  duplicate  copy  used  with  him  was  not 
accurate,  and  so  the  number  of  errors  which  he  made  in 
reading  was  not  secured  with  certainty.  With  the  other 
five  persons  tested  no  such  interruptions  occurred,  and 
the  number  of  errors  made  could  be  accurately  recorded. 
These  five  were  tested  in  quiet  rooms,  free  from  all  dis- 
tractions. 

E.  S.  was  able  to  read  so  rapidly  that  it  was  very  diffi- 
cult to  record  his  errors.  Possibly  he  made  more  errors 
than  the  figures  show. 

The  figures  given  above  are  the  results  secured  during 
the  last  ten  days.  Some  weeks  before  sheets  had  been 
secured,  printed  in  both  styles  of  type — a  page  of  one 
time-table  set  up  in  one  style  of  type  and  a  different  page 
set  up  in  the  other  style.  The  total  number  of  trains 
in  the  two  pages  were  almost  identical,  and  the  names 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EXPERIMENT     .      333 

of  the  stations  were  apparently  equally  difficult  to  pro- 
nounce. So  far  as  I  could  judge,  the  results  secured 
with  these  pages  were  trustworthy,  but  to  remove  any 
possibility  of  doubt  I  had  the  pages  prepared  as  described 
in  the  experiment  above.  The  results  secured  in  the  two 
cases  are  in  general  the  same.  The  experiment  as  de- 
scribed is  therefore  a  verification  of  the  first  experiment. 
We  thus  have  the  results  secured  from  twelve  subjects  in- 
stead of  from  six.  The  total  result  secured  from  th.e 
first  six  persons  showed  that  the  heavy  type  could  be 
read  12f  per  cent,  faster  than  the  lighter-face  type. 
The  increase  secured  with  the  last  six  subjects  was  13i 
per  cent.  These  results  are  more  uniform  than  might 
have  been  expected.  Two  of  the  twelve  subjects  read  the 
small-face  type  faster  than  the  large-face.  As  great  a 
number  of  abnormal  results  as  two  out  of  twelve  may 
ordinarily  be  expected.  To  overcome  such  errors  a  large 
number  of  persons  should  take  part  in  the  experiment 
and  then  in  the  general  average  single  exceptions  are 
less  disturbing. 

The  marked  contrast  in  the  results  secured  from  the 
two  kinds  of  faces  of  the  same  size  type  is  found  in  the 
number  of  errors  which  the  readers  made,  the  difference 
being  forty-five  per  cent,  or  more.  The  errors  were  ordi- 
narily in  misreading  tlie  time.  Frequently  the  time  was 
connected  with  the  wrong  station.  One  person,  for 
example,  read  that  the  train  leaves  Cream  Ridge  at  7.52, 
when  in  fact  the  train  leaves  there  at  7.25  and  leaves 
Chillicothe  at  7.52.  .  An  error  of  that  kind  would  cause 
the  would-be  passenger  to  miss  his  train.  Mistaken 
pronunciation  and  similar  minor  mistakes  were  not 
recorded  as  errors. 

When  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  time-tables 
are  used  as  sources  of  information  as  to  the  times  of 


334       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

trains,  and  when  it  is  discovered  that  the  lighter-face 
type  increases  the  chance  of  errors  forty-five  per  cent, 
and  increases  the  time  necessary  to  read  any  part  of  the 
time-table  thirteen  per  cent.,  it  then  becomes  evident 
that  such  minor  differences  as  that  of  the  two  faces  here 
given  are  details  which  should  be  carefully  considered. 
Those  who  construct  time-tables  try  to  get  them  up  in 
such  form  that  it  will  be  easy  and  pleasant  for  the  public 
to  read  them.  The  smaller-face  type  is  harder  to  read, 
as  is  shown  by  the  two  facts  of  increase  of  time  and 
increase  of  number  of  errors  in  reading  it.  The  smaller- 
face  type  is  also  less  pleasant  reading  than  the  heavier- 
face,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  several  of  the  persons 
complained  that  the  small-face  type  was  hard  on  their 
eyes.  Time-tables  are  often  read  at  night  and  by  poor 
light.  This  fact  makes  it  essential  that  the  type  should 
be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  does  not  unnecessarily  strain 
the  eyes. 

The  results  of  this  experiment  are  not  of  more  impor- 
tance to  the  advertising  manager  of  a  railroad  than  they 
are  to  other  advertisers  who  are  limited  to  the  use  of 
type  for  the  exploiting  of  what  they  have  to  offer  to  the 
public.  The  easier  and  more  pleasant  the  type  is  to 
read,  the  greater  are  the  chances  that  it  will  be  read 
and  have  the  desired  effect. 


FOOD  ADVERTISING  335 


XXVI 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  FOOD 
ADVERTISING 

The  taste  of  foods  is  partially  a  matter  of  sentiment 
and  imagination.  This  is  largely  true  of  all  foods,  but 
is  particularly  applicable  to  foods  as  served  by  our 
modern  chefs.  Our  rural  ancestors  were  engaged  long 
hours  of  the  day  in  strenuous  toil  in  the  open  air.  For 
them  eating  was  merely  to  relieve  the  pangs  of  hunger. 
Pork  and  beans  would  cause  their  mouths  to  "water/' 
and  would  be  a  more  tempting  morsel  to  them  than  are 
the  best-prepared  dishes  of  our  gastronomic  artists  to 
us.  Times  have  changed.  We  have  turned  from  a  rural 
population  living  out  of  doors  into  an  urban  popula- 
tion of  sedentary  habits.  This  change  is  manifesting 
itself  yearly  in  the  alterations  which  are  being  wrought 
in  our  food  consumption.  The  cruder,  grosser,  and 
unesthetic  foods  are  finding  fewer  consumers,  while 
those  foods  are  finding  a  readier  market  which  are  more 
delicate  in  texture  and  more  elegant  and  esthetic  in 
appearance.  Tlie  garniture  of  a  food  is  becoming  a  more 
and  more  important  factor  in  its  consumption.  The 
reproduced  advertisement  of  Sunkist  ( No.  1 )  presents  a 
good  illustration  of  this  principle. 

The  appetite  of  our  modern  urban  population  is 
much  more  a  matter  of  sentiment  and  imagination  than 
was  that  of  our  rural  ancestors.  We  all  think  that  we 
prefer  turkey  to  pork  because  the  taste  of  the  turkey  is 


^p 


How 

Garnishing 

Improves 
Foods 


rioxK 


an  ui  tne 
home  cook 


CALtFOnNJA 


Uniformly  Good  Lemons 


No.  1. — Food  depicted  not  as  victuals  but  as  a  delicate  morsel. 


FOOD  ADVERTISING  337 

better  than  that  of  the  pork.  We  should  question  the 
esthetic  judgment  of  a  man  who  would  be  so  bold  as 
to  say  that  the  taste  of  chicken  is  as  good  as  that  of 
quail.  Even  if  I  have  such  a  cold  in  my  head  that  I 
can  smell  nothing,  I  should  greatly  prefer  maple  sirup 
to  sorghum  molasses.  It  seems  absurd  that  there  should 
be  any  possibility  of  hesitation  in  choosing  between  these 
articles.  The  facts  are  that  in  each  of  these  alternatives 
as  to  choice  we  are  unable  to  distinguish  the  difference 
between  the  two  by  taste  at  all. 

The  ''tasting  game"  has  proved  itself  to  be  extremely 
interesting  to  both  old  and  young.  In  this  game  por- 
tions of  food  are  given  to  blindfolded  subjects  who  are 
then  asked  to  identify  the  food  by  eating  it.  In  arrang- 
ing for  this  game,  the  foods  should  be  carefully  prepared. 
The  meats  should  be  chopped  fine  and  no  seasoning  or 
characteristic  dressing  of  any  sort  should  be  used.  If 
these  conditions  are  observed,  and  if  in  no  extraneous 
manner  the  name  of  the  food  is  suggested,  the  blind- 
folded subjects  will  make  the  most  astounding  mistakes 
in  trying  to  name  the  most  ordinary  articles  of  diet. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  mistakes  which  will 
actually  occur:  Strawberry  sirup  may  be  called  peach 
sirup  or  sugar  sirup.  Beef  broth  may  be  called  chicken 
broth.  The  liquid  in  which  cabbage  has  been  boiled 
may  be  said  to  be  the  liquid  from  turnips.  Malt  ex- 
tract may  be  called  yeast  or  ale.  Veal  broth  may  be 
called  the  broth  of  mutton,  beef,  or  chicken.  Raw  pota- 
toes chopped  fine  may  be  thought  to  be  chopped  acorns. 
White  bread  may  be  called  whole-wheat  bread.  Boston 
brown  bread  may  be  called  corn-meal  cake.  Beef,  veal, 
I3ork,  turkey,  chicken,  quail,  and  other  meats  will  be 
confused  in  a  most  astounding  manner. 

This  ''tasting  game"  would  be  impossible  if  we  really 


338       THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

discriminated  between  our  articles  of  diet  by  the  sense 
of  taste. 

We  are  at  once  led  to  inquire  for  the  reasons  why  we 
choose  one  article  of  food  and  reject  another  if  their 
tastes  are  so  similar  that  we  cannot  tell  them  apart  when 
our  eyes  are  closed  or  blindfolded.  Why  do  we  prefer 
turkey  to  pork?  Of  course  there' are  certain  cuts  of 
pork  which  do  not  resemble  certain  parts  of  turkey,  but 
the  question  has  to  do  only  with  those  parts  of  turkey 
and  pork  which  cannot  be  easily  discriminated  with 
closed  eyes.  The  correct  answer  to  the  question  is  that 
we  prefer  turkey  to  pork  because  turkey  is  rarer  than 
pork  and  because  there  is  a  certain  atmosphere  or  halo 
thrown  about  turkey  which  is  not  possessed  by  pork. 
We  are  inclined  to  think  of  pork  as  ^'unclean/'  gross, 
and  unesthetic.  Turkey  has  enveloped  itself  in  visions 
of  feasts  and  banquets.  It  is  associated  with  Thanks- 
giving and  all  the  pleasant  scenes  connected  therewith. 
We  have  seen  pictures  in  which  turkey  was  so  garnished 
that  it  looked  beautiful.  Grossness  and  sensuousness 
naturally  attach  themselves  to  the  unesthetic  process  of 
eating  and  to  the  unesthetic  articles  of  food,  but  turkey 
associates  itself  with  our  most  pleasing  thoughts  and 
does  not  stand  out  in  all  its  nudity  as  dead  fowl. 

Again  it  may  be  asked,  Why  do  we  prefer  quail  to 
chicken?  This  can  be  answered  in  terms  similar  to 
those  in  which  we  explained  the  preference  for  turkey 
as  compared  with  pork.  Quail  is  rarer  than  chicken. 
Furthermore,  the  quail  is  associated  in  our  minds  with 
the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  the  open  fields,  pure  air,  the 
copse  of  woods,  vigorous  exercise,  days  spent  in  agree- 
able companionship  and  exhilarating  sport.  Our  an- 
cestors lived  by  the  chase,  and  we  seem  to  have  inherited 
a  fondness  and  even  love  for  everything  connected  there- 


FOOD  ADVERTISING  339 

with.  It  might  also  be  added  that  quail  is  served  in  a 
more  elegant  form  than  chicken.  The  garnish  is  a 
large  part  of  a  quail,  but  chicken  is  likely  to  be  served 
in  its  nudity.  There  is  a  delicacy  and  yet  a  plumpness 
about  the  quail  which  is  not  to  be  found  in  a  chicken. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  all  these  points  of  superiority 
of  quail  over  chicken  are  independent  of  taste ;  yet  they 
all  have  a  part  in  determining  our  final  judgment  as  to 
the  taste  of  the  meat. 

The  American  people  have  been  long  years  in  creating 
this  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  turkey  and  the  quail, 
but  it  is  well  established,  and  it  will  cause  turkey  and 
quail  to  be  desired  even  when  other  meats  equally  good 
in  taste  are  rejected. 

The  man  who  has  foodstuffs  to  sell  would  be  fortunate 
if  he  could  get  his  commodity  in  a  class  with  turkey 
and  quail.  Such  a  result  would  insure  him  constant  sales 
at  a  profitable  price.  Just  as  we  are  willing  to  pay 
more  for  turkey  and  quail  than  we  are  for  pork  and 
chicken,  so  we  would  be  willing  to  pay  more  for  any 
article  of  food  which  could  be  presented  to  us  in  such 
an  appetizing  atmosphere  as  they  are. 

The  questions  which  naturally  arise  in  the  mind  of 
the  advertiser  are.  Can  I  create  such  a  sentiment  in 
favor  of  my  commodity  that  it  will  be  seen  enshrined 
in  sentiment?  Has  a  glamour  ever  been  created  for 
an  article  of  merchandise  by  advertising?  This  last 
question  must  certainly  be  answered  in  the  affirmative. 
If  the  advertisements  of  Ivory  Soap  (No.  2)  have  ac- 
complished anything,  it  is  this  very  thing.  All  of  these 
advertisements  have  been  of  one  class  for  a  quarter 
of  a  century.  They  all  bring  out  the  one  point  of  spot- 
less elegance.  These  advertisements  have  created  an 
atmosphere,  and  when  I  think  of  Ivory  Soap,  a  halo 


340       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

of  spotless  elegance  envelops  it,  and  I  do  not  think 
of  it  merely  as  a  prosaic  chunk  of  fat  and  alkali.  I 
have  had  this  idea  of  spotless  elegance  so  thoroughly 
associated  with  Ivory  Soap  by  means  of  these  many  ad- 
vertisements that  I  actually  enjoy  using  Ivory  Soap  more 
than  I  should  if  the  soap  had  not  thus  been  advertised. 
The  advertising  of  this  soap  not  only  induces  me  to  buy 


m 

m 

No.  2. — This  advertisement  assists  in 
creating  an  atmosphere  of  spotless 
elegance  about  Ivory   Soap. 

it,  but  it  influences  me  in  my  judgment  of  the  soap  after 
I  have  bought  it. 

Another  advertising  campaign  which  is  to  be  likened 
to  that  of  Ivory  Soap  is  that  of  the  Chickering  Piano 
(No.  3).  These  advertisements,  like  those  of  Ivory 
Soap,  often  seem  to  say  so  little  and  at  times  it  really 
seems  that  they  squander  their  space  by  filling  almost 


FOOD  ADVERTISING 


341 


the  entire  page  with  the  illustration  and  by  saying  so 
little  directly  about  their  merchandise.  They  are  alike 
in  that  the  goods  advertised  are  not  thrust  out  into 
the  foreground  of  the  illustration.  The  ChicJ^ering 
Piano  may,  indeed,  be  the  central  part  of  the  cut,  but 


No.  3. — This  advertisement  attempts  to  as- 
sociate with  the  Chickering  Piano  an 
atmosphere  of  sumptuous  elegance. 


other  articles  of  furniture,  etc.,  are  emphasized  in  a 
manner  which  seems  to  detract  from  the  piano.  Many 
advertisements  of  the  Chickering  Piano  are  evidently 
devised  to  represent  the  piano  as  an  article  of  furniture 
in  a  home  which  is  most  sumptuously  and  tastefully 
furnished.  We  are  left  to  draw  the  conclusion  foa'  our- 
selves that  if  persons  with  such  elegant  homes  choose 
the  Chickering  it  must  be  good  enough  for  us.     The 


342       THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

piano  is  set  most  artfully  in  this  atmosphere  of  cultured 
refinement  and  elegance.  Most  pianos  are  advertised 
merely  as  pianos^  and  I  can  think  of  them  as  such, 
but  I  find  that  my  thought  of  the  Chickering  is  biased 
by  this  air  of  elegance  which  hovers  over  it. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  sentiment  created  in  favor 


No.  4. — This  advertisement  attempts  to 
associate  with  Nabisco  an  atmosphere 
of  romance  and  sentiment. 


of  Ivory  Soap  and  Chickering  Pianos  is  quite  comparable 
to  that  which  exists  in  favor  of  turkey  and  quail.  So 
far  as  I  am  concerned,  no  advertiser  of  foodstuffs  has 
quite  equaled  Ivory  Soap  and  the  Chickering  Piano  in 
creating  a  favorable  sentiment  or  atmosphere  in  favor 
of  his  commodity.  The  firm  which  has  come  the  nearest 
to  it  is  the  National  Biscuit  Company.     Their  adver- 


FOOD  ADVERTISING 


343 


tisements  of  Nabisco  (No.  4)  are  most  excellent  in 
that  they  create  an  atmosphere  which  is  exactly  suited 
to  the  article  advertised.  Delicacy  and  purity,  even 
bordering  on  the  romantic  and  sentimental,  are  the 
qualities  which  we  all  feel  as  we  look  at  the  advertise- 
ments or  read  them.  These  advertisements  have  been  so 
successful  with  me  that  when  I  eat  a  Nabisco  I  seem 


fLand 
o^Cakes 


"Land  o  CaKes"  is  a  name  frenoertly  given  to 
Scotland  where  meal  cakei  form  an  imporlanl 
artcle  of  diet  •  The  phrase  was  rr^de  famous  by 
Robert  Bums  in  >:«<»  in  his  poem  Oh  CaptaiH 

Closes  Percgnna/wm  through   Sictlaiui.^vibici^ 

cocwnencej.  with  the  following  lines; 

Vfrie  MiKknlurti  lo  Johnny  Onatf* 

ft  may  *ell  be  thai  some  later  poe»  wiH  sng  of 
Amcnca  as  the  Land  of  BisodI,  for  m  the  past 
■five  years  the  Amencan  peooie  have  consijjied 
(f*ex  three  hundred  mJIon  pacJiiiges  <J, 

Uneeda 


Biscuit 


wnoKAL  eiscinr  compaky 


5* 


No.  5. — This  advertisement  attempts  to 
associate  with  a  soda-cracker  an  atmos- 
phere of  patriotism. 

to  get  a  sentimental  or  romantic  taste  out  of  it.  If 
while  in  the  dark  I  were  given  a  new  flavor  of  Nabisco, 
and  if  I  did  not  know  what  it  was,  it  would  not  taste 
so  good  as  it  would  under  normal  conditions.  I  enjoy 
Nabisco  wafers  more. because  of  these  advertisements 
than  I  should  if  I  had  not  seen  them.  Sentiment  is 
not  easily  or  quickly  engendered,  but  if  this  style  of 
advertising  is  continued  I  anticipate  that  Nabisco  sugar 


,344      THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISING 

wafers  will  taste  better  and  better  with  each  succeeding 
appearance  of  a  good  advertisement. 

A  soda-cracker  is  one  of  the  most  prosaic  things 
imaginable,  and  nothing  kills  the  flavor  of  an  article 
of  diet  more  than  this  feeling  of  the  commonplace  and 


No.  6. — An  over-crowded  advertisement ;  the 
promiscuous  abundance  kills  the  appetite 
for  food. 

the  lack  of  poetical  or  esthetic  sentiment.  The  National 
Biscuit  Company  is  undertaking  a  big  task  when  it 
attempts  to  weave  poetical  associations  about  Uneeda 
Biscuit  (No.  5).  The  attempts  thus  far  have  been  but 
half-hearted  and  infrequent.  The  reproduced  illustra- 
tion shown  herewith  (No.  5)  is  a  very  good  attempt 
to  give  the  Uneeda  Biscuit  a  connection  with  man's 


FOOD  ADVERTISING  345 

higher  nature.  If  the  firm  is  able  to  create  a  senti- 
mental setting,  or  to  associate  the  soda-cracker  with 
something  patriotic,  or  with  something  of  that  sort,  it 
will  add  immensely  to  the  "taste"  of  the  commodity. 

There  are  a  few  advertisers  of  food  products  who  are 
trying  to  create  an  appetizing  halo  and  to  spread  it 
over  their  goods,  but  in  geneml,  food  advertisements 
are  woefully  weak  at  this  point.  If  my  appreciation  of 
a  soap  or  a  piano  can  be  increased  by  advertising,  then 
most  assuredly  there  is  a  great  field  for  profitable  en- 
deavor for  the  advertiser  of  foodstuffs.  Nothing  is  in- 
fluenced by  sentiment  and  imagination  more  than  the 
sense  of  taste.  Whether  I  like  an  article  of  food  or 
not  often  depends  upon  what  I  think  of  the  food  before 
I  taste  it.  Here  is  the  advertiser's  opportunity.  He  is 
able  to  influence  me  to  buy  the  goods,  and  then  his  ad- 
'Vertisements  may  make  me  like  the  taste  of  the  goods 
after  I  have  bought  them.  Whether  his  goods  will  be 
classed  with  "pork"  or  with  "turkey"  depends  not  only 
on  the  real  taste  of  the  foodstuff,  but  also  upon  the 
efficacy  of  the  advertisements  in  creating  the  favorable 
atmosphere. 

When  we  are  pleased  we  are  open  to  suggestions  and 
are  easily  induced  to  act.  When  we  are  displeased,  we 
become  insensible  to  appeals,  and  are  overcautious  in 
our  actions.  One  of  the  functions  of  the  advertiser  is 
to  please  the  prospective  customers  and  in  every  way 
possible  to  knit  agreeable  suggestions  about  the  prod- 
uct offered  for  sale. 

Most  persons  choose  their  foods  wholly  upon  the  stand- 
ard of  taste.  They  choose  that  which  tastes  good  while 
they  are  eating  it,  and  refuse  that  which  is  displeasing 
to  the  palate.  The  savory  morsel  is  eaten  without 
thought  as  to  its  chemical  constituents. 


346       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Perhaps  in  no  form  of  advertising  is  it  so  necessary 
to  please  the  prospective  customer  as  in  food  advertis- 
ing. Pleasure  stimulates  the  appetite,  and  pleasure  is 
the  standard  of  choice.  The  advertiser  of  food  prod- 
ucts should  therefore  present  only  the  most  pleasing 
suggestions,  and  he  should  depict  his  food  product  in 
the  most  appetizing  manner  possible. 

It  is  true  that  certain  foods  are  bought  because  of 
their  medicinal  properties,  but  such  foods  should  be 
regarded  as  medicine  rather- than  as  food.  The  trend 
of  our  diet  is  not  dependent  upon  any  one  thing.  A 
careful  study  of  the  changed  food  fashions  will  discover 
many  agencies  at  work,  but  among  others  will  certainly 
be  found  the  appearance  of  the  foodstuff.  The  package, 
can,  bag,  basket,  bottle,  or  whatever  is  used  to  encase  the 
goods  as  sold  and  delivered,  must  be  regarded  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  foodstuff,  and  as  an  efficient  factor 
in  determining  whether  the  goods  will  be  consumed 
in  increasing  or  decreasing  quantities.  How  much  more 
appetizing  are  crackers  packed  in  a  box  than  the  same 
crackers  sold  in  bulk!  Who  will  say  how  much  is  due 
to  the  form  of  the  box  in  the  enormous  increase  of 
crackers  in  America  during  the  last  few  years !  Would 
the  American  public  ever  have  taken  kindly  to  the 
cereal  breakfast  food  if  we  had  been  compelled  to  buy 
it  in  the  bulk? 

The  housewife  purchases  the  provisions  for  the  table. 
In  her  mind  the  package  is  intimately  associated  with* 
the  contents.  She  knows  that  a  meal  does  not  taste 
good  unless  the  linen  is  spotless  and  the  service  more 
or  less  formal  and  ceremonious.  The  package  in  which 
the  goods  are  delivered  is  as  surely  associated  with  the 
food  as  is  the  linen  of  the  table  and  all  the  other  articles 
of  service.    The  modern  housewife  is  insisting  on  a  beau- 


FOOD  ADVERTISING  347 

tiful  dining-room,  the  best  of  linen  and  artistically  dec- 
orated china.  The  glassware  must  be  cut-glass  and  the 
silver  of  the  most  improved  pattern.  The  table  must 
be  decorated  and  the  individual  dishes  garnished.  The 
housewife  who  is  insisting  on  all  these  details  is  the 
one  the  merchant  should  have  in  mind  when  he  is  plan- 
ning for  the  sale  of  his  goods.  She  wants  those  articles 
of  food  which  come  in  neat  packages  and  which  can  be 
served  in  neat  and  elegant  form.  In  her  mind  the  ap- 
pearance is  an  essential  part  of  the  taste,  and  she  does 
not  believe  that  a  food  can  be  appetizing  unless  it  looks 
as  if  it  were. 

This  same  modern  housewife  predetermines  her  choice 
of  foods  by  what  she  knows  of  them  in  advance.  Her 
ideas  may  be  molded  by  advertising,  for  this  process  is 
at  work  daily  in  all  our  homes.  Like  the  housewives, 
we  all  form  an  idea  of  a  food  by  the  advertisements  of 
it  which  we  have  seen,  even  'if-  we  have  not  read  them. 
If  the  advertisement  looks  pleasing  and  if  the  food  is 
there  presented  in  an  appetizing  manner,  we  believe 
that  the  food  itself  will  be  all  right  and  we  are  preju- 
diced in  favor  of  it. 

One  thing  that  spoils  the  looks  of  food  products  is 
having  them  piled  up  in  a  confused  mass.  A  table  which 
contains  many  articles  of  food  at  once  is  not  inviting 
to  the  epicure.  We  like  to  have  our  meals  served  in 
courses,  and  prefer  many  light  courses  rather  than  a 
few  heavy  ones.  The  same  principle  holds  with  adver- 
tisements. Many  advertisements  which  would  other- 
wise be  strong  are  weakened  by  overcrowding  of  good 
things. 

The  reduced  advertisement  of  Wheatlet  (No.  6)  as 
reproduced  herewith  is  not  appetizing,  for  the  appear- 
ance of  the  whole  thing  is  ruined  by  the  multitude  of 


348       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

fruits  which  are  thrown  promiscuously  into  the  illus- 
tration. I  think  I  might  like  Wheatlet  if  it  were  served 
with  any  one  of  these  frmts,  but  if  it  should  be  pre- 
sented in  such  a  confusion  as  this  it  would  not  be  eaten 
at  all. 

The  method  which  the  housekeepers  of  the  land  em- 


No.  7. — A  simplification  of  the  Wheatlet 
border.  It  familiarizes  the  public  with 
the  appearance  of  the  package. 

ploy  in  purchasing  foods  must  be  a  factor  in  determin- 
ing the  appropriate  form  of  advertising.  In  some 
instances  householders  make  written  lists  of  the  goods 
desired;  the  order  is  placed  without  looking  at  the 
goods  at  all.  In  other  instances  the  order  is  sent  by 
telephone  or  by  a  messenger.  In  perhaps  the  most  cases 
the  purchaser  enters  the  grocery  store  in  person.  She 
has  her  list  of  purchases  but  imperfectly  made   out. 


FOOD  ADVERTISING  349 

As  she  enters  the  store  she  is  confronted  by  rows  and 
tiers  of  bottles,  cans,  and  boxes.  Out  of  this  bewilder- 
ing multitude  of  packages  she  is  pleased  to  see  certain 
ones  which  are  known  to  her.  These  familiar  packages 
catch  her  attention  more  than  the  scores  of  unknown 
ones.  The  known  ones  are  the  packages  which  she  is 
most  likely  to  purchase,  as  they  catch  her  attention  just 
at  the  time  she  is  trying  to  recall  the  things  of  which 
she  may  be  in  need. 

Of  the  two  advertisements  (Wheatlet  and  Egg-o-See), 
the  last-mentioned  emphasizes  the  appearance  of  the 
package,  while  the  advertisement  of  Wheatlet  omits  the 
presentation  of  the  package.  At  the  moment  of  making 
the  purchases  for  the  week  these  two  commodities  might 
be  on  the  shelf  before  the  purchaser.  The  reproduced 
advertisement  of  Egg-o-See  is  such  that  it  has  made  her 
familiar  with  the  package  as  it  appears  on  the  shelves 
and  it  would  thus  be  called  to  her  attention  at  the  crit- 
ical moment.  The  advertisement  of  Wheatlet  is  not 
such  as  would  have  assisted  in  familiarizing  her  with 
the  appearance  of  the  package,  and  thus  it  does  not 
assist  in  attracting  her  eye  to  the  goods  advertised  at 
the  moment  of  decision.  While  in  the  grocery  store 
the  purchaser  does  not  taste  the  various  articles,  but 
tier  upon  tier  of  different  goods  are  presented  to  her 
sense  of  sight.  It  is  by  sight  that  she  recognizes  the 
various  packages,  and  an  advertising  campaign  that 
familiarizes  the  housekeepers  of  the  nation  with  the  dis- 
tinguishing appearance  of  any  particular  package  has 
done  much  to  increase  its  sale. 

While  the  public  is  being  made  familiar  with  the  food 
or  the  food  container,  a  pleasing  appeal  should  also  be 
made  to  the  esthetic  nature  of  the  possible  customers. 

The  human  race  is  carnivorous,  but  it  does  not  like 


350       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

to  be  reminded  of  the  fact.  It  is  disgusting  to  think 
of  eating  the  flesh  of  dead  cows,  hogs,  and  sheep.  We 
refuse  to  use  the  terms  "cow-fiesh,"  "hog-flesh/'  and 
^'sheep-flesh.''  Our  abhorrence  of  such  ideas  is  regis- 
tered in  our  language,  and  so  we  use  the  terms  "beef," 
"pork,"  and  "mutton."  It  is  not  pleasing  to  think  of 
eating  the  flesh  of  the  smaller  animals  and  of  fowls,  still 
it  is  not  so  abhorrent  as  the  thought  of  eating  the  flesh 
of  the  larger  and  domestic  animals.  Accordingly  we 
still  use  the  same  word  to  denote  the  live  animal  and  the 
flesh  in  such  instances  as  "rabbit,"  "squirrel,"  "chicken," 
"goose,"  etc. 

It  is  quite  conceivable  that  the  sight  of  a  dead  car- 
cass would  whet  the  appetite  of  a  hyena.  The  sight 
of  a  fat  pig  might  cause  the  mouth  of  a  wolf  to  "water." 
The  sight  of  an  animal,  whether  dead  or  alive,  is  not 
very  appetizing  to  the  civilized  man  or  woman.  We 
know  that  beef  is  nothing  but  the  flesh  of  dead  cattle, 
but  we  refuse  to  entertain  the  idea  at  mealtime.  In- 
deed, we  have  become  so  cultured  that  we  like  to  have 
our  meats  garnished  till  they  cease  to  have  the  appear- 
ance of  flesh  at  all.  There  are  whole  nations  which 
refuse  to  eat  meat,  and  vegetarianism  in  our  own  coun- 
try is  but  an  indication  of  the  revolt  of  the  human  mind 
against  our  carnivorous  habits. 

As  a  nation  our  wealth  is  increasing  rapidly  and 
consequently  we  are  better  able  to  purchase  meats  now 
than  fifty  years  ago,  yet  the  government  statistics  shov 
a  great  decrease  per  capita  in  the  consumption  of  meats. 
We  have  changed  from  a  rural  to  an  urban  population 
and  hence  require  less  meat  foods,  and  what  we  do 
eat  must  always  be  presented  in  a  pleasing  manner  and 
in  a  way  which  jars  as  little  as  possible  against  our 
refined  and  cultivated  natures. 


FOOD  ADVERTISING 


351 


In  advertising  meats,  the  fact  should  never  be  empha- 
sized that  the  meat  is  the  flesh  of  an  animal.  That  point 
should  be  taken  for  granted  and  passed  over  as  lightly 
as  possible.  Certain  advertisers  have  not  taken  this 
matter  into  consideration  and  press  to  the  front  the  fact 
that  their  meats  are  the  flesh  of  animals.  Thus  the 
reproduced  advertisement  of  Liebig  (No.  8)  is  given 
up  to  the  emphasizing  of  the  point  that  this  extract  is 


No.  8. — This  adver- 
tisement makes  no 
one  hungry  for  ex- 
tract of  beef. 


secured  from  the  carcasses  of  beautiful  steers.  This 
advertisement  makes  no  one  hungry  for  Liebig  Com- 
pany's extract  of  beef.  The  advertisement  is  intended 
to  make  the  public  familiar  with  the  Liebig  trademark^ 
and  the  criticism  is  therefore  directed  against  the  choice 
of  such  a  trademark  rather  than  against  this  special 
advertisement,  which  is  but  a  presentation  of  the  trade- 
mark. The  reproduced  advertisement  of  Armour  &  Co. 
(No.  9)  does  not  present  an  animal  in  its  entirety,  but 
it  represents  too  much  of  it.  The  carcasses  as  shown 
in  the  advertisement  are  too  large  to  tempt  our  appe- 
tites and  the  general  effect  is  rather  disgusting.     If 


352       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

smaller  pieces  of  meat  had  been  shown,  the  result  would 
have  been  entirely  different. 

The   reproduced   advertisement   of  Armour's  potted 
ham  and  ox  tongue  (No.  10)  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most 


Association  of  Ideas 

A  Lesson  in  Memory  Training 


By  what  Chain  of  Ideas 

'Sould .'-  you  .  link    together, 

Hhese  (our  mental  pictures? 

Armour's— Beef—  Extract— Potted 

au  Englanq 

And  by  what  Mental  Images 

»Ould  you  fasten  in  your  mind  the  following  three, ideas? 
(l.)  4  Jame  cattle— of  selected   bfeed -raised' on  rich 

iarm  lands — not  running  ^vlld  on  the  South 

American  pampas, 
(a.)  ''Extrict  made  on  the  highest"  and":  most:  moderJi 

scientific  principles. 
(3)    Best  Extract  of  ih«  Best  BeeL 

U'net  onir  •»p»cl«li/ 
««*M  (or  Soupt.  Saucti. 
OmlM^and  B««l  T»«, 
Ibtii  tfiKumarabl*  o»li«r 
•ImcUintf'dilntydUAM. 
^Dl*  It  No.  Win  "Odl' 
fcloiM  Duhn,-*  •  Booklet 


^p««,  which  w%  will  MNO 
r<H»  rmt  il  lou  wriu  to 
,0«Pt.Jt  . 


SCALLOPED    FISH. 

nefnalfitef  any  cold  flih;  tali;  ptrvvr^torfad-erumbtt 

ftvlivr  (m«Uao);  Armour*!  BiUftct  of  B««f ;  nulm»ff. 

.^FUke  U>e  fiiH  f^ii  c.rcf'iltjf  mniov«  »ny  hgnrs  or  tUin. 

B(»lK  oul  lonx  lollop  Shi<  t  or  ir«\.l«],  w  I  <rc  ;re«l  iak, 

niihbuller:  •l"*!  it  "cU  «iih  crumbl.    Sprinkle  oilli  t  layrr 

of  fi»h  and  a  (<w  more  brrad-crumbf,  thch  pour  over  ■  liitle  of 

the  butter.  se««o<i  with  ult  and  pepper.    Repeat  tintH  the  diih 

orahell  ij  full,  then  rnelt  the  E»racl  In  •.il/i/droa  ot  hot 

water  and  bruih  overShe  top  with  It.     Fiolih  •iih  bread. 

Bake  In  gixA  fy*n  a  Die* 


olden  brown,  and  mn 


t.ihell  Of  diib. 


ARMOUJ}  Cr  CO..  46b.  Holbora  Vi^uct.  Loadon,  ELC 


No.     9. — This    advertisement    associates    Armour's 
meat  with   the  carcasses  of  dead  animals. 


pleasing  advertisements  of  meats  that  has  appeared  in 
our  magazines.  No  one  can  look  at  the  advertisement 
without  being  impressed  with  the  desirability  of  these 
products.  The  meat  is  presented  in  small  pieces  and 
is  garnished  till  it  is  hardly  recognizable.     Such  an 


FOOD  ADVERTISING 


353 


advertisement  creates  a  demand  for  the  goods  and  preju- 
dices the  customers  in  their  favor,  and  the  ham  and 
ox  tongue  will  taste  better  to  the  customer  after  he  has 
seen  this  advertisement.    This  would  be  a  better  adver- 


No.  10. — This  advertisement  increases  the 
appetite  for  Armour's  meat. 


tisement  for  Armour  &  Co.  if  the  can  were  shown  in 
which  this  meat  had  been  purchased.  The  border  might 
include  a  cut  of  the  container  and  the  total  effect  be 
rendered  none  the  less  artistic. 

We  not  only  object  to  thinking  of  ourselves  as  car- 


354       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

nivorous  but  we  object  to  having  animals  connected  in 
any  way  with  our  foods.  The  reproduced  advertisement 
of  White  Star  Coffee  (No.  11)  is  in  every  way  disgust- 
ing. Frogs  are  inherently  uncanny  to  most  persons,  and 
to  see  them  here  as  the  representatives  of  a  particular 


^.f^  WhitI 

Star 

offee 


No.  11. — ^A  slimy  frog 
associated  with 
White  Star  Coffee 
kills  the  desire  for 
coffee. 


No.  12. — He  seems  to 
like  it  and  I  imag- 
ine that  it  is  excel- 
lent. 


brand  of  coffee  serves  but  to  instil  a  dislike  and  even 
abhorrence  for  the  product.  This  advertisement  never 
made  any  one  eager  for  a  cup  of  coffee.  It  does  not 
create  a  demand  for  coffee  and  in  the  cases  where  the 
demand  already  exists  it  does  not  convince  the  casual 
observer  that  White  Star  Coffee  is  particularly  desir- 
able.   It  is  one  of  the  most  silly  and  destructive  adver- 


FOOD  ADVERTISING 


355 


tisements  appearing  in  our  current  magazines.  The 
other  reproduced  advertisement  of  the  same  brand  of 
coffee  (No.  12)  is  in  no  way  objectionable  and  is  a 
great  improvement  in  point  of  display  over  the  first  one. 
Ordinarily  we  feed  the  animals  what  we  do  not  care 
to  eat  ourselves,  and  the  assumption  is  that  that  which 


No.   13. — An   example  of  waste  in   adver- 
tising. 


is  good  enough  for  the  beasts  is  not  fit  for  men  and 
women.  In  the  reproduced  advertisement  of  Korn  Krisp 
(No.  13)  the  food  is  represented  as  being  fed  to  the 
fowls.  The  assumption  would  be  that  it  is  a  food  es- 
pecially adapted  to  their  taste,  and  I  should  not  want  to 
eat  it  myself.  Even  the  young  goose  seems  to  be  dis- 
gorging the  food  for  some  unexplained  reason!     Here 


356       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

we  have  evidence  of  an  amateur  advertiser  who  was  en- 
amoured with  his  play  on  the  words,  "it  fills  the  bill," 
and  who  was  willing  to  pay  for  the  exploitation  of  his 
joke  under  the  pretense  of  an  advertisement. 

It  may  be  possible  that  under  very  exceptional  cir- 
cumstances it  would  be  advisable  to  introduce  an  ani- 
mal in  an  advertisement  of  a  food  product,  but  it  should 
be  don^  only  with  great  caution  and  with  full  realiza- 
tion of  the  dangers  incurred  because  of  the  inevitable 
association  between  the  animal  and  the  food  advertised. 

The  advertiser  must  seek  to  associate  his  food  only 
with  purity  and  elegance.  In  a  sense  the  advertisement 
is  the  representative  of  the  food,  and  if  the  advertise- 
ment is  associated  with  disgusting  or  displeasing  objects 
the  food  is  the  loser  thereby.  The  advertising  pages 
of  many  of  our  cheaper  periodicals  are  nothing  better 
than  chambers  of  horrors.  The  afflictions  of  mankind 
are  here  depicted  in  an  exaggerated  form.  The  paper 
is  poor,  the  ink  is  the  cheapest,  and  the  make-up  is  with- 
out taste.  They  are  altogether  a  gruesome  sight.  Food 
advertisements  in  such  papers  are  practically  worth- 
less. Even  in  these  papers  a  few  food  advertisements 
are  found,  but,  unfortunately,  there  are  only  a  few.  In 
these  cheaper  forms  of  publications  the  majority  of  ad- 
vertisements are  likely  to  be  of  patent  medicines  or  of 
forms  of  investments.  The  medicines  are  advertised  by 
depicting  the  unwholesome  aspects  of  life,  and  the  in- 
vestments are  usually  of  a  questionable  sort.  These 
advertisements  of  patent  medicines  and  investment 
schemes  make  the  readers  suspicious  and  hence  they 
ar-e  in  a  condition  of  mind  which  leads  them  to  suspect 
the  foods  advertised  as  being  adulterated  and  impure. 

Even  good  daily  papers  are  open  to  this  criticism. 
No.  14  is  a  reproduction  of  a  section  of  one  of  the  best 


FOOD  ADVERTISING 


357 


American  dailies.  The  food  advertisements  are  here 
associated  with  "skin  diseases/'  "asthma/'  "consump- 
tion/' "blood  poison/'  "whirling  spray  douche/'  "pim- 
ples/' "eruptions/'  "backaches/'  and  other  ills  and  un- 


pdcrs  in 
|l  condi- 

fson 

faur 

ikey 


NT 


F 


I  Soap 

No.    14 


^'    '     '"-^^ 


MALT  MARROW 

Ma«VoV    MALT   «XT'<KCr    O  tPT.,    CHIJAQO. 


CURED,  SATISFIED  PATIENTS 


BLOOD  POISON 


cuRtoio  sTAt  Cored. 


p.  HAROLD  MkVU.  ButtsJo.  N.    ' 


C  R  E  M E^ M  AR Q U I  S  E 


Y£OLDE  iUfr  ALE 

KCILCV  BREV«lhaGO.,CniCA«o,lll 


ARMOUR»S 


Hood's    Sarjoparilla 


OU  UatLrroof  Rye 


ourrvs^puRE  wilt  whuucy 

—Food  advertisements  ruined  by  the 
make-up  of  the  paper. 


appetizing  suggestions.  What  value  is  the  advertise- 
ment of  Malt  Marrow  and  of  Armour's  Star  Ham  in 
such  an  environment?  Until  the  daily  papers  have 
more  to  offer  than  such  position  as  is  indicated  by  No. 
14  they  certainly  are  not  preferred  media  for  food 
advertisers. 


358       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

XXVII 
THE  LAWS   OF  PROaEESSIVE   THINKING 

In  acquiring  simple  acts  of  skill  we  all  use  in  the  main 
the  ^'trj,  try  again''  method.  This  is  technically  known 
as  the  ^^trial  and  error"  method.  We  simply  keep  try- 
ing till  we  happen  to  hit  it  right,  and  then  w^e  imitate 
our  successes  till  finally  the  skill  is  acquired.  The  first 
correct  response  may  have  been  reflex,  instinctive,  or 
merely  accidental.  When,  however,  w^e  attempt  to  de- 
velop acts  of  skill  or  ideas  in  advance  of  our  fellows  this 
simple  method  of  trial  and  error  does  not  suffice.  It  is 
of  course  true  that  most  of  the  actions  of  all  of  us  and 
all  the  acts  of  many  of  us  are  not  progressive  in  the 
sense  here  intended.  By  progressive  thinking  we  mean 
the  conception  of  new  ideas,  the  invention  of  new  meth- 
ods of  doing  work,  the  construction  of  a  new  policy  or 
a  new  instrument,  or  something  of  a  kindred  nature. 
For  such  thinking  the  essential  mental  process  involves 
nothing  totally  different  from  ordinary  thinking,  but 
it  involves  the  ordinary  processes  in  a  more  complete 
and  efficient  form.  The  processes  referred  to  are  the 
following  four :  observation,  classification,  inference  and 
application.  The  laws  of  progressive  thinking  are  de- 
rived from  these  processes  and  are  nothing  more  than 
a  demand  for  the  complete  carrying  out  of  these  four 
processes.  The  thinking  of  the  advertiser  does  not  differ 
from  that  of  others;  and  in  what  follows  the  discus- 
sion will  be  confined  to  the  advertiser  and  his  problems, 
inasmuch  as  such  a  concrete  problem  seems  more  definite 
than  a  general  discussion. 

Observation  is  logically  the  first  step.     All  advertis- 


LAWS  OF  PKOGRESSIVE  THINKING      359 

ers  have  eyes,  but  they  do  not  all  use  them  equally  well. 
Observation  should  begin  at  home.  The  advertiser 
should  analyze  his  own  response  to  advertisements,  but 
unfortunately  he  is  likely  to  become  so  prejudiced  or 
hardened  to  advertisements  that  his  own  judgment  must 
be  taken  with  great  caution.  How  does  this  advertise- 
ment or  this  part  of  the  advertisement  affect  me?  How 
does  it  affect  my  wife,  my  mother,  my  sister?  How 
does  it  affect  the  persons  who  ride  on  the  train  with 
me  or  who  pass  by  the  billboards  with  me?  This  is  the 
territory  which  is  so  near  at  home  that  we  disregard 
it.  Such  observations  must,  of  course,  be  supplemented 
by  tests  carried  on  by  means  of  keying  the  advertise- 
ment, by  consulting  the  sales  department,  etc. 

None  of  us  are  ideal  observers.  We  can't  tell  just 
how  certain  advertisements  affect  us  or  what  element  of 
the  advertisement  is  the  most  effective.  We  do  not 
observe  accurately  how  advertisements  affect  those  about 
us.  We  see  only  those  things  which  we  have  learned  to 
see  or  which  have  been  pointed  out  to  us.  We  are  not 
skillful  in  discovering  new  methods  of  securing  new 
data  and  so  our  observations  are  neither  so  accurate 
nor  so  extensive  as  they  should  be. 

The  advertiser  has  an  extensive  field  of  observation 
and  but  little  direction  as  to  the  best  method.  He  must 
observe  his  goods  in  order  to  know  the  possible  qualities 
which  may  be  presented  with  greatest  force.  He  must 
observe  the  public  to  which  he  is  to  make  his  appeal. 
He  must  be  a  practical  psychologist.  He  must  also  be 
an  advertising  expert  according  to  the  narrow  and  falla- 
cious use  of  that  term.  In  the  past  the  advertiser  has 
not  been  required  to  know  his  commodity  or  his  public, 
but  he  has  felt  satisfied  if  he  was  an  expert  in  the  con- 
struction of  advertisements,  the  choice  of  mediums,  the 


360       THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

keying  of  advertisements,  and  similar  strictly  technical 
accomplishments.  The  observations  are  not  complete 
unless  they  include  these  three  fields,  i.e.^  the  goods,  the 
public,  and  the  advertisements. 

The  second  step  in  the  method,  logically  speaking,  is 
that  of  classification.  The  observations  must  be  classi- 
fied. The  scattered  data  must  be  brought  together  be- 
fore they  can  be  utilized.  Great  skill  is  necessary  to 
make  the  right  classifications.  In  any  large  office  care 
must  be  used  in  filing  away  material  to  see  that  the 
general  heads  are  not  only  correct  but  that  they  are 
the  most  usable  ones.  Likewise  in  filing  away  our  ob- 
servations, in  getting  them  into  shape  so  that  we  can 
use  them,  the  greatest  care  is  necessary  in  choosing 
the  right  heads  and  in  getting  all  the  data  under  their 
appropriate  general  heads.  All  the  data  must  be 
analyzed  and  classified  and  reclassified,  for  new  ob- 
servations require  new  classifications,  so  that  the  classi- 
fication is  never  complete  and  the  generalizations  based 
on  the  classifications  are  continually  increasing.  For 
instance,  every  advertiser  has  a  certain  amount  of  data 
concerning  the  effectiveness  of  advertisements  without 
illustrations  in  publications  in  which  the  text  matter  is 
largely  illustrated.  But  how  many  advertisers  have 
grouped  this  data  and  formed  any  general  statement 
concerning  it? 

The  process  of  classification  involves  that  of  analysis, 
and  the  difficulty  of  forming  new  analyses  is  much 
greater  than  would  be  supposed  by  those  who  have  not 
studied  the  process.  In  order  that  new  classifications 
may  be  made,  the  data  must  be  worked  over  and  thought 
of  in  all  the  possible  relations.  The  man  who  makes 
the  best  use  of  his  knowledge  is  the  one  who  has  it  best 
analyzed  and  classified. 


LAWS  OF  PROGRESSIVE  THINKING      361 

Advertisers  have  sent  me  two  different  advertisements 
which  were  carefully  keyed,  one  of  which  was  successful 
and  the  other  one  unsuccessful.  In  some  cases  the  ad- 
vertisements are  very  similar  and  the  differences  at 
first  sight  seem  non-essential,  yet  the  differences  are 
great  enough  to  secure  success  in  one  case  and  failure 
in  another.  Lender  some  circumstances  it  might  be 
practically  impossible  to  deduce  the  cause  of  the  differ- 
ences. Recently  an  advertiser  sent  me  two  such  ad- 
vertisements. One  had  been  unsuccessful  and  the  other 
had  been  extremely  successful.  The  illustrations  were 
very  similar  and  the  arguments  were  largely  identical 
throughout.  The  two  had  been  run  in  the  same  sizes 
and  in  the  same  and  also  in  different  publications.  It 
seemed  quite  evident  that  the  difference  must  lie  in 
the  advertisements  themselves  and  not  in  any  extrane- 
ous matter. 

I  think  that  I  was  correct  in  inferring  that  the  dif- 
ference lay  in  the  display  of  the  illustration  and  text 
matter,  but  not  in  the  quality  of  either  of  them.  In 
the  unsuccessful  advertisement  there  was  no  resting- 
place  for  the  eye  and  no  point  or  line  of  orientation. 
(The  line  of  orientation  is  the  line  which  the  eye  fol- 
lows in  observing  an  illustration.)  In  the  successful 
advertisement  the  eye  rested  naturally  at  the  point  from 
which  the  advertisement  looked  the  most  artistic  and 
from  which  the  content  of  the  advertisement  could  best 
be  understood.  Furthermore,  the  line  of  orientation  was 
such  that  the  eye  naturally  followed  the  order  which 
made  the  argument  and  display  mutually  strengthen- 
ing, and  so  the  eye  rested,  at  the  conclusion,  at  the 
point  which  was  most  inducive  to  immediate  action. 
Any  trained  artist,  or  even  any  one  who  had  studied 
the  theory  which  underlies  artistic  productions,  might 


362       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

very  naturally  have  looked  for  this  resting-place  for 
the  eye  or  for  the  appropriate  place  for  the  line  of 
orientation,  but  unless  these  features  were  taken  into 
consideration  the  wrong  conclusion  would  have  been 
drawn  as  to  the  cause  of  success  or  failure  in  the  case  of 
these  two  advertisements. 

The  fourth  step  in  the  mental  process  of  the  progres- 
sive advertiser  is  that  of  applying  the  deductions  drawn 
from  the  former  experience.  The  laws  concerning  the 
force  called  electricity  are  known  to  thousands,  but  it 
takes  an  Edison  or  a  Marconi  to  make  a  new  application 
of  these  same  laws.  If  Edison  and  Marconi  had  not  a 
comprehensive  grasp  of  these  laws  they  would  not  be 
inventors.  Others  have  as  good  a  knowledge  of  all  the 
phenomena  connected  with  electricity  as  they  and  yet 
are  unable  to  make  a  practical  use  of  their  knowledge. 
Science  can  formulate  the  laws  of  the  phenomena  as  far 
as  they  have  been  discovered  and  applied,  but  it  cannot 
lay  down  rules  or  suggest  infallible  methods  for  further 
discoveries  and  inventions.  This  does  not  minimize  the 
value  of  science,  but  it  emphasizes  the  need  of  originality 
and  ingenuity  in  the  man  who  strives  to  lead  his  pro- 
fession and  to  invent  new  methods  and  to  make  new 
applications  of  those  he  has  learned. 

Certain  keen  students  of  advertising  have  prophesied 
but  little  benefit  to  advertising  from  the  science  of  psy- 
chology, because  a  science  cannot  lay  down  rules  for 
things  which  are  not  yet  discovered.  This  criticism 
has  weight  with  any  who  should  be  so  foolish  as  to 
suppose  that  every  accomplished  student  of  the  human 
mind  would  of  necessity  be  a  successful  advertiser.  To 
suppose  that  a  great  psychologist  would  of  necessity  be 
a  successful  innovator  in  advertising  is  just  as  sane 
as  to  suppose  that  every  one  who  understands  electricity 


LAWS  OF  PROGRESSIVE  THINKING      363 

as  well  as  Edison  would  have  as  great  a  record  as  he  at 
the  patent  office.  If  Edison  had  known  nothing  of  the 
science  of  physics,  it  is  quite  certain  that  he  never  would 
have  been  heard  from.  Science  does  not  produce  in- 
ventors, but  it  is  of  great  assistance  to  a  genius  and 
may  cause  him  to  become  a  great  discoverer.  Psychol- 
ogy is  of  assistance  to  every  advertiser  in  helping  him 
to  observe  widely  and  accurately,  in  teaching  him  how 
to  classify  or  group  his  observations  systematically :  it 
should  help  him  in  drawing  the  correct  conclusions  from 
his  classified  experience.  If  psychology  could  do  no 
more  it  would  be  of  inestimable  value,  but  as  applica- 
tions or  new  discoveries  depend  so  largely  on  the  forma- 
tion of  correct  deductions  and  hypotheses,  psychology 
may  even  be  of  benefit  in  this  last  and  most  difficult  step 
in  the  mental  process  of  the  innovator. 

The  most  successful  advertisers  are  those  who  ob- 
serve most  widely  and  accurately,  who  classify  their 
observations  and  group  them  in  the  most  usable  form, 
who  then  think  most  keenly  about  these  classified  ob- 
servations so  as  to  draw  the  most  helpful  conclusions, 
and  lastly  who  have  the  greatest  ability  in  utilizing 
these  deductions  in  their  advertising  campaigns.  They 
are  the  active  men,  those  who  are  seeking  better  methods 
of  observation  and  of  classification  and  who  are  never 
content  with  their  past  deductions  or  their  applications. 
To  show  what  I  mean  at  this  point  I  will  illustrate 
from  methods  employed  by  one  of  the  leading  advertisers 
of  America. 

In  observing  the  effect  which  advertisements  produce 
upon  a  community  it  is  much  easier  to  learn  which 
advertisements  are  effective  than  what  it  is  in  the  par- 
ticular advertisements  which  makes  them  interesting. 
Mr.  B.,  as  an  aid  in  making  observations  at  this  latter 


364       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

point,  secured  several  thousands  of  letters  from  readers 
of  issues  of  the  magazine  of  which  he  was  the  advertis- 
ing manager.  In  these  letters  the  writers  told  which 
advertisements  they  were  the  most  interested  in  and 
what  it  was  in  each  particular  advertisement  which  in- 
terested them.  Mr.  B.  could  have  turned  to  the  pages 
of  his  magazine  and  have  made  a  personal  observation 
as  to  the  way  the  different  advertisements  affected  him 
and  what  it  was  in  any  particular  advertisement  which 
interested  him  most,  but  by  the  method  described  he 
multiplied  his  observations  a  thousand  fold,  and  all 
within  the  commodity  with  which  he  has  to  deal.  When 
he  had  read  over  the  letters  he  had  the  data  before  him 
but  it  was  in  chaotic  and  worthless  condition.  The  next 
step  was  to  bring  order  out  of  chaos.  It  was  easy  to 
tabulate  the  results  and  find  out  how  many  were  es- 
pecially interested  in  each  particular  advertisement. 
But  when  it  came  to  classifying  the  reasons — and  often 
women's  reasons  at  that — for  being  interested  in  each 
advertisement,  the  task  proved  itself  to  be  one  of  great 
difficulty. 

The  data  were  turned  over  to  me  for  such  classifica- 
tion, and  though  this  is  not  the  place  to  give  in  full 
the  general  heads  and  the  sub-heads  under  which  the 
classification  was  finally  made,  it  may  be  interesting  to 
know  that  t4ie  reasons  for  advertisements  proving  in- 
teresting were  in  the  order  of  their  frequency:  first, 
reliability;  second,  financial  consideration;  third,  the 
construction  of  the  advertisement ;  and  fourth,  the  pres- 
ent need  of  the  reader.  Thus  of  the  letters  received  one 
month,  607  affirmed  that  they  were  most  interested  in 
their  chosen  advertisement  because  they  believed  that 
the  firm  or  the  medium  or  the  goods  were  strictly  re- 
liable.    In  some  cases  they  had  tried  the  goods  adver- 


LAWS  OF  PROGRESSIVE  THINKING      365 

tised ;  in  some  they  had  dealt  with  the  firm ;  in  some  they 
noticed  the  testimonials  or  the  prizes  taken,  etc.  In 
the  same  month  508  were  particularly  interested  be- 
cause of  money  considerations.  Some  because  they  could 
get  the  goods  advertised  more  cheaply  than  elsewhere; 
some  because  the  advertisements  offered  a  chance  to 
get  something  for  service  instead  of  for  cash,  etc.,  etc. 
In  the  same  month  418  were  most  interested  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  advertisement.  Some  were  most  inter- 
ested, for  instance,  in  the  Nestle's  Food  advertisement, 
because  it  was  very  artistic  and  was  run  in  colors.  In 
the  same  month  408  were  most  interested  in  a  particular 
advertisement  because  it  presented  goods  which  they 
needed  at  that  particular  time.  To  recapitulate  the 
results :  607  for  reliability,  508  for  money  considerations, 
418  for  the  construction  of  the  advertisement,  and  408 
because  of  the  present  need. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  say  that  from  the  classifications 
of  these  data  certain  conclusions  have  been  drawn  and 
that  attempts  are  being  made  to  apply  the  conclusions 
to  the  planning  of  advertising  campaigns.  These  experi- 
mental applications  will  furnish  new  data;  these  will 
in  turn  be  classified,  new  conclusions  deduced,  and 
further  attempts  at  practical  application  will  follow. 
In  this  way  we  have  an  endless  chain  of  observation, 
classification,  inference,  and  application.  This  method 
is  applicable  not  only  to  writing  advertisements  but  to 
every  detail  of  the  profession.  Indeed  it  is  the  method 
of  progressive  thinking  in  every  line  of  human  endeavor. 
The  four  steps  are  not  fully  differentiated  in  our  actual 
experience,  but  are  presented  here  as  distinct  for  the 
sake  of  clearness. 


366       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVEETISING 


XXVIII 

THE  UNCONSCIOUS  INFLUENCE  IN 
STEEET  EAILWAY  ADYEKTISING 

Every  form  of  advertising  has  its  particular  psycho- 
logical effect,  and  the  medium  which  the  merchant 
should  choose  depends  upon  many  conditions.  Fore- 
most among  such  conditions  are  expense,  the  class  of 
persons  to  be  reached,  the  quality  of  goods  to  be  pre- 
sented, the  width  of  distribution  of  goods,  etc.,  etc. 
Equal  with  these  conditions,  however,  the  advertiser 
should  consider  the  peculiar  psychological  effect  of  each 
particular  form.  The  monthly  magazine,  the  week- 
lies and  the  dailies  carry  authority  which  is  lacking 
in  other  forms.  These  publications  are  held  in  high 
repute  in  the  household,  and  advertisements  appearing 
in  them  are  benefited  by  this  confidence  which  is  be- 
stowed upon  everything  appearing  in  them.  Posters, 
bill-boards,  painted  signs,  and  similar  forms  of  adver- 
tising admit  of  extensive  display  within  a  prescribed 
area  and  have  great  attention  value.  Booklets,  circu- 
lars, and  similar  forms  of  advertising  admit  of  com- 
plete descriptions  and  may  be  put  in  the  hands  of  only 
those  who  are  interested  in  the  commodity  offered  for 
sale.  They  appeal  to  the  reason  in  a  way  not  surpassed 
by  any  form  of  printed  advertising. 

The  psychological  effect  of  street-car  advertising  is 
not  generally  recognized,  and  in  this  presentation  there 
is  no  attempt  to  praise  one  form  of  advertising  and  to 


STEEET  KAILWAY  ADVERTISING         367 

decry  all  others,  but  inasmuch  as  the  psychological 
effects  of  other  forms  are  recognized  and  that  of  street- 
car advertising  is  frequently  not  recognized,  this  latter 
is  selected  for  fuller  presentation. 

Our  minds  are  constantly  subjected  to  influences  of 
which  we  have  no  knowledge.  We  are  led  to  form  opin- 
ions and  judgments  by  influences  which  we  should  reject 
if  we  were  aware  of  them.  After  we  have  decided  upon 
a  certain  line  of  action,  we  frequently  attempt  to  justify 
ourselves  in  our  own  eyes,  and  so  we  discover  certain 
logical  reasons  for  our  actions  and  assume  them  to  have 
been  the  true  cause,  when  in  reality  they  had  nothing 
to  do  with  it.  The  importance  of  these  undiscovered 
causes  in  our  every-day  thinking  and  acting  may  be  il- 
lustrated by  the  following  example. 

> — < 


< — > 


Lines  A  and  B  are  of  equal  length,  although  A  seems 
longer.  Now  why  do  we  reach  the  conclusion  that  A  is 
longer  than  B,  when  in  reality  such  is  not  the  case?  If 
they  are  the  same  length,  and  we  see  them  in  a  clear 
light,  we  should  expect  that  they  would  appear  to  be  as 
they  actually  are.  The  accepted  explanation  of  this 
illusion  is  that  there  are,  entering  into  the  judgment, 
certain  imperceptible  causes  which  make  us  see  the  lines 
as  of  different  length.    This  explanation  was  not  discov- 


368       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

ered  till  recent  years,  but  it  has  been  proved  to  be  cor- 
rect. In  judging  the  length  of  lines  we  run  our  eyes 
over  them,  and  so  get  a  sensation  from  the  contraction 
of  the  muscles  of  the  eyes.  We  judge  of  the  length  of 
lines  by  the  amount  of  this  sensation  derived  from  con- 
tracting the  muscles  which  move  the  eyes.  If  two  lines 
are  the  same  distance  from  us  and  are  the  same  length, 
our  eyes  w^ill  ordinarily  move  equal  distances  in  travers- 
ing their  lengths.  If  two  lines  are  equally  distant  from 
us,  and  one  longer  than  the  other,  we  ordinarily  have  to 
move  our  eyes  farther  in  estimating  the  length  of  the 
longer  one  than  in  estimating  the  length  of  the  shorter 
one.  We  are  not  aware  of  the  sensations  received  from 
these  movements  of  our  eyes,  and  yet  we  estimate  lengths 
of  lines  by  them.  The  peculiar  construction  of  the  lines 
A  and  B  induces  the  eye  to  move  farther  in  estimating 
the  length  of  A.  We  therefore  assume  that  A  is  longer 
than  B  because  our  eyes  move  farther  in  estimating  its 
length  than  in  estimating  the  length  of  B. 

The  street-railway  advertiser  controls  an  unrecog- 
nized force  which  is  similar  to  that  just  described  in  the 
estimation  of  the  length  of  lines.  The  arrow  pointing 
toward  the  line  as  shown  in  A  causes  us  all  to  over- 
estimate the  magnitude  of  the  line ;  and  there  is  a  factor 
present  in  street-railway  advertising  which  causes  us  to 
be  influenced  by  it  more  than  would  seem  possible.  There 
has  been  much  poor  street-railway  advertising,  and  yet 
the  results  have  been  phenomenally  great.  Some  recent 
tests  of  the  extent  to  which  passengers  had  been  influ- 
enced by  such  advertising  showed  most  conclusively  that 
there  was  an  unrecognized  power  in  it.  A  study  of  the 
situation  discloses  the  fact  that  this  unconscious  influ- 
ence is  none  other  than  TIME  which  manifests  itself  in 
three  phases  as  presented  below. 


STREET  RAILWAY  ADVERTISING         369 

As  a  result  of  investigations  upon  magazine  and  news- 
paper advertising  the  conclusion  was  reached  that  on  the 
average  only  ten  per  cent,  of  the  time  devoted  to  news- 
papers and  magazines  was  spent  in  looking  at  the  adver- 
tisements. .( For  a  fuller  account  of  the  investigation  see 
Chapter  XXIX. )  As  a  conclusion  deduced  from  these  re- 
sults it  was  recommended  that  advertisements  should  be 
so  constructed  that  the  gist  of  each  could  be  compre- 
hended at  a  glance,  for  most  advertisements  in  news- 
papers and  magazines  receive  no  more  than  a  glance 
from  the  average  reader.  The  ordinary  reader  of  news- 
papers and  magazines  glances  at  all  of  the  advertising 
pages  and  sees  all  the  larger  and  more  striking  adver- 
tisements. There  are  many  exceptions  to  this.  There 
are  persons  who  read  all  the  advertisements  and  there 
are  others  who  glance  at  but  few  of  them.  Magazines 
and  newspapers  have  become  so  numerous  and  the  daily 
duties  so  pressing  that  we  cannot  take  time  to  read  al] 
the  advertisements,  and  so  we  devote  but  few  minutes  to 
them,  and  in  those  few  minutes  we  see  a  great  number. 
We  cannot  afford  the  time  to  do  more. 
*  The  case  is  different  with  street-railway  advertising. 
Here  there  is  no  shortage  of  time.  There  is  sufficient 
opportunity  to  see  every  person  in  the  car  and  to  devote 
as  much  time  to  the  process  as  good  breeding  will  allow. 
Thereafter  one  is  compelled  to  look  at  the  floor  or  else 
above  the  heads  of  the  passengers.  One  cannot  read  a 
newspaper  on  a  crowded  car — I  am  acquainted  only  with 
crowded  cars.  Neither  is  it  practicable  to  read  a  book 
or  magazine  on  a  jolting  car — I  am  acquainted  only  with 
such.  To  attempt  to  look  out  of  a  window  opposite  to 
you  causes  the  lady  opposite  to  wonder  at  your  rudeness 
in  staring  at  her,  for  to  look  out  of  the  window  the 
eyes  are  directed  so  nearly  at  the  face  of  some  passenger 


370       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

that  one's  intentions  are  misjudged.  In  defence  of  one's 
good  breeding  and  to  drive  away  the  weariness  of  the 
ride  many  a  passenger  is  compelled  to  turn  his  gaze  on 
the  placards  which  adorn  the  sides  of  the  car.  The  pas- 
senger has  for  once  an  abundance  of  time.  He  reads  the 
card  and  then  reads  it  again  because  he  has  nothing 
else  to  do.  This  may  be  very  silly,  but  what  of  it?  It 
offers  a  diversion,  and  anything  is  better  than  looking  at 
the  floor,  counting  the  number  of  passengers,  or  watch- 
ing the  conductor  ring  up  the  fares. 

The  amount  of  time  spent  in  riding  on  street-cars  in 
America  is  far  beyond  the  conception  of  most  persons. 

The  electric  railways  of  the  United  States  carry 
about  fourteen  billion,  five  hundred  million  passengers 
annually.  This  does  not  include  the  electric  divisions  of 
certain  steam  roads  which  carry  advertising.  All  cars 
carrying  advertising  in  the  United  States  carry  about 
fifteen  billion  riders  annually. 

The  population  of  the  United  States  living  in  towns  on 
or  adjacent  to  electric  railway  systems  is  about  forty- 
five  million  people.  The  percentage  of  passengers  car- 
ried daily  to  the  total  population  of  these  cities  averages 
approximately  one  hundred  per  cent.  There  are  no  data 
available  for  the  length  of  time  consumed  by  an  average 
street-car  ride.  Fifteen  minutes  may  be  regarded  as  a 
fair  estimate.  Upon  this  estimate  each  inhabitant  of 
our  cities  spends  on  the  average  about  fifteen  minutes 
a  day  in  a  street  car.  These  rides  become  very  monot- 
onous ;  the  passengers'  minds  are  not  occupied,  and  very 
much  more  time  is  whiled  away  by  looking  at  the  adver- 
tisements than  we  are  aware  of. 

One  young  lady  asserted  that  she  had  never  looked 
at  any  of  the  cards  in  the  cars  in  which  she  had  been 
riding  for  years.    When  questioned  further,  it  appeared 


STREET  RAILWAY  ADVERTISING         371 

that  she  knew  by  heart  almost  every  advertisement  ap- 
pearing on  the  line  (Chicago  and  Evanston  line),  and 
that  the  goods  advertised  had  won  her  highest  esteem. 
She  was  not  aware  of  the  fact  that  she  had  been  study- 
ing the  advertisements,  and  flatly  resented  the  sugges- 
tion that  she  had  been  influenced  by  them.  Some  of  the 
goods  advertised  were  known  to  her  only  by  these  adver- 
tisements, yet  she  supposed  that  they  had  nothing  to  do 
with  her  esteem  of  the  goods.  She  supposed  that  she 
had  always  known  them,  that  they  were  used  in  her 
home,  or  that  they  had  been  recommended  to  her.  She 
did  not  remember  when  she  had  first  heard  of  them. 

It  has  been  said  that  we  have  learned  nothing  per* 
fectly  until  we  have  forgotten  how  we  learned  it.  This 
has  a  special  application  to  advertising.  An  advertise- 
ment has  not  accomplished  its  mission  till  it  has  in- 
structed the  possible  customer  concerning  the  goods  and 
then  has  caused  him  to  forget  where  he  received  his  in- 
struction. This  is  especially  important  in  street-car  ad- 
vertising. The  information  which  we  receive  from  the 
card  in  the  street  car  soon  becomes  a  part  of  us,  and  we 
forget  where  we  received  it. 

This  forgetfulness  of  the  source  of  our  information  is 
due  to  the  interval  which  has  elapsed  between  the  first 
time  the  advertisement  was  seen  and  the  present.  The 
more  frequently  the  advertisement  is  seen,  the  more  rap- 
idly will  the  memory  of  the  first  appearance  fade  and 
leave  us  with  the  feeling  that  we  have  always  known  the 
goods  advertised,  and  that  the  advertisement  itself  is 
no  essential  part  of  our  information.  [This  point  is  more 
fully  developed  in  Chapter  XIV,  Suggestion.] 

The  element  of  time  as  it  enters  the  problem  of  adver- 
tising is  recognized  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  two  phases 
thus  far  discussed,  but  there  is  another  phase  and  one 


372       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

of  even  more  importance  which  has.,  to  the  writer's 
knowledge,  never  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  ad- 
vertising. We  devote  the  most  time  to  those  subjects 
which  we  regard  as  the  most  important.  My  profession 
takes  most  of  my  thought,  the  lacing  of  my  shoes  very 
little.  Ideas  which  impress  me  as  important  cause  me 
to  think  of  them  for  lengthy  periods  of  time.  Ideas 
which  seem  insignificant  are  dismissed  immediately 
from  my  mind. 

This  element  is  recognized  by  every  skillful  public 
speaker.  He  speaks  rapidly  that  which  he  wishes  us  to 
consider  as  of  little  importance.  He  speaks  slowly  that 
which  he  wishes  us  to  regard  as  of  special  significance. 
We  weigh  the  importance  of  his  statements  and  estimate 
their  value  in  terms  of  the  time  which  he  gives  to  each. 

In  poetry,  thoughts  which  are  trivial  or  of  minor  im- 
portance are  expressed  by  rapid  movements.  Ideas 
which  are  of  more  importance  and  which  are  suppbsed 
to  call  forth  much  thought  from  the  reader  are  expressed 
in  slow  movements.  This  same  principle  holds  in  music. 
Music  which  means  much — which  suggests  many 
thoughts,  which  is  sublime,  deep,  or  large — all  such 
music  is  written  in  slow  time.  The  so-called  "rag-time" 
is  assumed  to  have  no  meaning;  it  is  not  supposed  to 
suggest  lines  of  thought.  It  has  no  intrinsic  importance 
and  is  consequently  appropriately  expressed  in  fast 
time. 

In  the  case  of  the  orator,  the  poet,  and  the  musician 
the  effect  is  produced  by  this  unrecognized  element  of 
time.  That  which  holds  our  thought  for  a  longer  time 
seems  to  us  to  be  important;  that  which  we  hurry  over 
seems  unimportant.  The  orator,  the  poet,  and  the  musi- 
cian have  simply  accommodated  themselves  to  our  intui- 
tive method  of  thinking  and  have  been  successful  because 


STREET  RAILWAY  ADVERTISING         373 

they  have  conformed  their  expressions  to  the  human 
method  of  thought. 

As  was  shown  above,  the  passengers  on  street  railways 
have  but  little  to  distract  their  attention.  They  go  over 
the  same  road  so  frequently  that  the  streets  passed 
through  cease  to  be  interesting.  Since  newspapers  and 
magazines  cannot  be  easily  read,  the  cards  have  but  few 
rivals  for  attention.  Even  those  who  have  but  little 
interest  in  the  advertisements  find  that  they  glance  at 
the  cards  frequently  and  that  the  eyes  rest  on  a  single 
card  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  The  same  card 
may  be  read  or  glanced  at  daily  for  as  long  a  time  as  the 
card  is  left  in  the  car.  The  sum  total  of  the  time  thus 
devoted  to  the  card  is  as  great  as  the  amount  of  time 
that  we  devote  to  many  of  our  important  interests. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances  we  bestow  thought  upon 
objects  in  proportion  to  their  importance.  This  is  not 
an  absolute  rule,  of  course,  but  it  expresses  a  principle. 
The  reverse  of  this  principle  is  not  recognized  by  us  at 
all  and  yet  it  is  of  primal  importance. 

That  which  occupies  our  minds  for  a  great  amount  of 
time  assumes  thereby  an  importance  which  may  be  out 
of  all  proportion  to  its  real  value.  Illustrations  of  this 
fact  are  to  be  found  on  every  hand.  The  mother  is 
likely  to  think  the  most  of  the  child  which  has  caused 
her  the  most  thought.  The  sickly  child  occupies  her 
mind  more  than  the  well  one,  and  this  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  she  attributes  to  the  sickly  child  an  importance 
far  beyond  its  real  worth.  Our  old  schoolbooks,  upon 
which  we  were  compelled  to  bestow  so  many  hours  of 
study,  in  later  years  assume  a  value  in  our  eyes  far  in 
excess  of  their  real  merit.  The  goods  which  through 
their  advertisements  have  occupied  our  minds  for  long 
periods  of  time  assume  in  our  minds  an  importance 


374       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

which  is  often  far  in  excess  of  anything  which  would 
have  been  anticipated  by  one  who  was  not  familiar  with 
the  peculiar  power  here  described.  In  estimating  the 
relative  values  of  two  competing  lines  of  goods,  I  as- 
sume that  my  judgment  is  based  on  the  goods  themselves 
as  they  are  presented  to  my  reason.  I  am  not  aware  of 
the  fact  that  I  am  prejudiced  in  favor  of  the  goods  that 
have  occupied  my  mind  the  longest  periods  of  time.  Yet 
it  is  as  certain  that  this  element  of  time  has  biased  my 
judgment  of  the  relative  values  of  the  goods  as  it  is  that 
the  eye  movement  influences  my  judgment  of  the  lengths 
of  lines. 

Advertisements  in  newspapers  and  magazines  are  seen 
by  a  great  number  of  the  readers,  but  the  time  devoted 
to  any  particular  advertisement  is  very  small,  unless 
there  is  a  special  interest  in  the  advertisement. 

There  is  indeed  no  form  of  advertising  which  is  pre- 
sented to  such  a  large  number  of  possible  purchasers 
for  such  a  long  period  of  time  and  so  frequently  as  is  the 
advertising  in  street-railway  cars.  In  most  other  forms 
of  advertising  we  devote  to  any  particular  advertisement 
only  as  much  time  as  we  think  it  is  worth.  In  street- 
railway  advertising  we  devote  longer  time  than  we  really 
think  is  due  to  the  advertisements,  and  then  we  turn 
around  and  estimate  the  value  of  the  goods  advertised 
by  the  amount  of  time  that  we  have  devotied  to  the  adver- 
tisement. This  is  the  psychological  explanation  of  the 
amazing  potency  of  this  particular  form  of  advertising. 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  375 


XXIX 

THE  QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  IN 
ADVERTISING 

ILLUSTRATED    BY   AN    INVESTIGATION    UPON    NEWSPAPERS 

Experience  is  the  best  teacher.  Methods  that  enable 
one  to  make  the  greatest  use  of  one's  own  experience  are 
valuable.  Methods  that  make  the  experiences  of  others 
also  available  are  even  more  valuable. 

One  of  the  functions  of  every  science  is  to  develop 
methods  that  are  useful  for  investigating  problems  which 
concern  that  particular  science.  One  of  the  methods 
that  modern  psychology  has  developed  is  the  so-called 
Questionnaire  Method.  This  method  has  many  defects, 
but  it  has  the  inestimable  value  of  assisting  the  investi- 
gator to  take  advantage  of  the  experiences  of  a  great 
number  of  individuals. 

The  Questionnaire  Method  is  used  to  secure  the  con- 
sensus and  the  diversity  of  many  individual  opinions. 
A  single  question  or  a  set  of  questions  is  presented  to 
any  desired  group  of  persons.  The  answers  to  the  ques- 
tions are  derived  from  the  experiences  of  those  who  are 
to  answer  them.  If  the  questions  call  for  the  descrip- 
tion of  simple  unemotional  events,  reliance  may  be  put  in 
the  answers  received  from  all  sincere  respondents.  If 
the  answers  call  for  a  difficult  analysis  of  motives  and 
interests,  less  reliance  can  be  placed  in  any  single  answer 
and  greater  caution  must  be  used  in  drawing  conclusions 
based  upon  the  replies. 

There  are  many  problems  that  the  advertiser  needs  to 
investigate  for  which  the  Questionnaire  Method  alone  is 


376       THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

available.  A  single  illustration  will  indicate  how  such 
questions  arise,  how  they  may  be  investigated,  and  will 
also  present  a  mass  of  information  concerning  news- 
papers that  is  of  interest  and  profit  to  advertisers. 

A  prominent  advertising  man  was  planning  copy  to  be 
used  on  street-car  cards  designed  to  secure  new  sub- 
scribers to  newspapers.  The  campaign  was  to  be  con- 
ducted in  different  American  cities  in  the  interest  of 
local  papers,  but  in  each  case  the  attempt  was  to  be 
made  to  reach  the  best  citizens  of  the  city.  The  two 
following  questions  naturally  suggested  themselves: 
What  is  there  in  the  modern  newspaper  that  appeals  to 
the  better  classes  of  society ^  and  what  motives  should  he 
appealed  to  in  inducing  them  to  begin  a  subscription? 
The  problems  here  raised  are  clearly  psychological  and 
subject  to  the  Questionnaire  Method,  which  was  em- 
ployed in  investigating  them. 

A  carefully  selected  list  was  prepared  containing  the 
names  of  four  thousand  of  the  most  prominent  business 
and  professional  men  in  Chicago.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  include  what  could  fairly  be  said  to  be  the  best  citizens 
of  Chicago.  The  number  was  so  large  that  it  contained 
a  fully  representative  group.  For  the  purpose  of  com- 
parison, another  list  of  one  thousand  names  was  pre- 
pared. This  list  contained  the  names  of  men  from  very 
different  classes  of  society,  but  all,  with  few  exceptions, 
were  adult  men.  The  questionnaire  as  reproduced  here- 
with was  mailed  to  the  five  thousand  names  constituting 
the  two  lists. 

I.  What  Chicago  daily  or  dailies  do  you  read? 

II.  Which  one  do  you  prefer? 

III.  State  in  order  the  five  features  of  your  paper  which  inter- 
est you  most.  (For  example,  politics,  society,  finance, 
sporting,  foreign  news,  local  news,  special  articles,  ro- 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  377 

a 

mance  and  storiettes,  cartoons,  advertisements,  art, 
music  and  book  reviews,  moral  or  ethical  tone,  editori- 
als, brevity,  accuracy,  etc.) 

1....; 

2 

3 

4 

5 

IV.  Do  you  spend  on  an  average  as  much  as  15  minutes  daily 

reading  a  Chicago  paper? 

V.  What  induced  you  to  begin  the  subscription  of  the  paper  or 
papers  which  you  are  now  taking? 

VI.  Were  you  ever  induced  by  means  of  a  premium  or  prize  to 

subscribe  for  a  Chicago  paper? If  so, 

did  you  resubscribe  for  the  same  paper  without  a 
premium? 


Answers  to  these  questions  are  desired  from  the  selected  per- 
sons to  whom  they  are  mailed.  The  answers  are  needed  in 
solving  a  psychological  question  of  interest  and  may  be  placed 
in  the  stamped  envelope  enclosed  herewith  and  mailed  at  once. 
They  will  be  gratefully  received  by  the  sender. 
Yours  respectfully, 

WALTEE  D.  SCOTT, 
Director  of  the  Psychological  Laboratory, 
Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  Illinois. 

Eeplies  were  received  from  about  two  thousand,  three 
hundred  of  the  representative  business  and  professional 
men.  The  replies  from  the  one  thousand  are  disre- 
garded in  the  present  chapter ;  and  inasmuch  as  but  ap- 
proximately two  thousand  answered  each  of  the  ques- 
tions, the  two  thousand,  three  hundred  are  hereafter 
referred  to  as  "the  two  thousand."  Those  receiving  the 
questionnaire  seemed  much  interested  in  the  research, 
and  although  they  are  very  busy  men,  the  answers  indi- 
cate careful  deliberation  and  the  utmost  sincerity.     Al- 


378       THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 


• 


though  no  place  was  provided  for  signatures,  a  good 
proportion  signed  their  names  to  the  paper  or  enclosed 
a  personal,  signed  letter.  A  large  number  of  the  slips 
were  carefully  keyed,  and  even  when  no  signature  was 
attached,  the  author  of  the  replies  was  known.  In  all 
the  slips  the  key  indicated  at  least  to  which  one  of  the 
numerous  groups  the  respondent  belonged.  In  case  of 
doubt  as  to  whether  the  replies  were  filled  out  personally 
by  the  man  to  whom  the  questionnaire  was  sent,  they 
were  rejected  as  not  authentic.    No  proxies  were  desired. 

Over  fifty  per  cent,  of  those  receiving  the  questionnaire 
took  pains  to  fill  out  the  blank.  This  proportion  is  un- 
usually large  and  is  to  be  attributed  to  several  causes. 
A  stamped  return  envelope  was  enclosed.  The  subject 
under  investigation  was  personally  interesting.  The 
answers  were  sought  for  as  a  means  of  "solving  a  psy- 
chological question,"  and  psychology  is  very  popular 
just  at  present.  The  investigator,  owing  to  his  univer- 
sity connection,  was  assumed  to  be  honest  and  desirous 
of  securing  only  the  facts.  The  advertiser  might  have 
great  difflculty  in  selecting  a  group  of  persons  whose 
answers  would  be  significant  and  yet  who  would  be  will- 
ing to  fill  out  the  blanks.  Doubtless  in  many  cases  the 
list  would  have  to  be  confined  to  business  associates  or 
to  personal  friends.  Haphazard,  voluntary  answers  re- 
ceived in  competition  for  a  prize  or  for  the  gaining  of  a 
paltry  reward  are  not  to  be  compared  in  value  to  volun- 
tary replies  from  a  carefully  selected  list.  The  difficulty 
of  securing  trustworthy  replies  is  so  great  that  the  ad- 
vertiser will  usually  be  compelled  to  have  the  investiga- 
tion carried  on  by  a  disinterested  person,  as  it  was  done 
in  the  present  instance. 

Ordinarily  no  suggestions  should  be  made  as  to  what 
answer  is  expected.     If  any  suggestions  are  made,  that 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  379 

fact  should  never  be  forgotten  in  estimating  the  results. 
In  the  questionnaire  reproduced  herewith,  the  amount 
of  space  left  for  answering  the  first  question  suggested 
that  the  names  of  but  one  or  two  papers  were  to  be 
written.  This  doubtless  affected  the  results.  Also  in 
connection  with  the  third  question  a  series  of  answers 
was  suggested.  The  number  of  suggestions  was  made 
so  large  that  no  particular  one  would  have  much  more 
effect  than  the  others,  and  as  all  probable  answers  were 
suggested  the  results  were  certainly  not  greatly  changed 
thereby. 

The  fact  that  each  individual  reads  or  scans  a  number 
of  papers  daily  was  brought  out  clearly  by  the  answers 
to  the  first  question.  ( I.  What  Chicago  daily  or  dailies 
do  you  read?)  Eighty-six  per  cent,  reported  themselves 
as  reading  more  than  a  single  paper.  The  space  in  the 
questionnaire  left  for  writing  the  names  of  the  papers 
read  was  but  a  little  over  one  inch  in  length.  In  spite 
of  this  fact  the  respondents  took  pains  to  write  in  a  num- 
ber of  papers.  As  stated  above,  it  is  quite  probable  that 
the  inadequate  space  and,  in  some  cases,  the  haste  of 
writing  the  names  caused  an  understatement  of  the 
actual  number  of  papers  read.  As  reported,  the  figures 
are  as  follows : 

14%  read  but  one  paper 
46%  read  tw^o  papers 
21%  read  three  papers 
10%  read  four  papers 

3%  read  ^ye  papers 

2%  read  six  papers 

3%  read  all  the  papers  (8). 

Some  of  the  papers  taken  by  any  person  are  to  be 
regarded  as  subsidiary  and  as  commanding  but  little 


380       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

attention;  These  subsidiary  papers  contain  a  large  part 
of  the  advertisements  that  are  also  contained  in  the  pre- 
ferred papers,  which  command  the  most  attention.  The 
same  advertisement  seen  in  two  or  three  papers  may  be 
more  effective  than  if  seen  in  but  one;  but  most  adver- 
tisers are  convinced  that.it  is  not  worth  three  times  as 
much  to  have  an  advertisement  seen  in  three  papers  as 
it  is  to  have  it  seen  in  one.  The  duplication  of  circula- 
tion represents  a  loss.  If  the  advertiser  could  pick  out 
the  papers  that  command  the  most  confidence  of  a  rela- 
tively large  number  of  readers,  he  could  afford  to  neglect 
the  subsidiary  papers  entirely. 

The  fourth  question  was,  (IV.  Do  you  spend  on  an 
average  as  much  as  15  minutes  daily  reading  a  Chicago 
paper?) 

A  decided  majority  seemed  to  consider  fifteen  minutes 
a  fair  estimate  of  the  time  spent  in  reading  the  daily 
papers.  Four  per  cent,  answered  that  they  spent  less 
than  fifteen  minutes  daily.  Twenty-five  per  cent,  re- 
ported a  greater  amount  of  time.  A  few  reported  as  much 
as  two  hours,  but  "just  about  fifteen  minutes"  was  by 
far  the  most  common  answer.  The  writers  were  fre- 
quently careful  to  state  that  this  fifteen  minutes  was 
the  total  time  spent  in  reading  all  the  papers  and  not 
the  amount  spent  in  reading  each  of  the  several  papers 
read.  Considering  together  the  total  number  of  papers 
read  and  the  total  amount  of  time  spent  in  reading  them, 
we  reach  the  conclusion  that  a  very  decided  majority  of 
these  representative  business  and  professional  men  spend 
but  approximately  from  five  to  ten  minutes  reading  any 
particular  paper.  These  few  minutes  admit  of  but  the 
most  cursory  reading.  A  favorite  program,  as  reported, 
is  the  reading  of  the  head  lines,  the  table  of  contents, 
the  weather  reports,  etc.     Then  if  time  admits  or  if  any- 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  381 

thing  especially  interesting  is  discovered,  attention  may 
be  turned  for  a  few  seconds  or  minutes  to  a  more  leisurely 
reading  of  the  articles  discovered  in  the  preliminary 
search. 

The  papers  are  glanced  through  so  hurriedly  that  an 
advertisement,  in  order  to  be  seen  at  all,  unless  sought 
for,  must  be  striking  in  appearance  and  must  announce 
something  in  which  the  reader  is  particularly  interested. 
Advertisements  may  be  divided  into  two  groups :  classi- 
fied and  display  advertisements.  The  classified  are  read 
only  by  those  who  search  for  them.  The  display  adver- 
tisements are  glanced  at  by  a  very  large  number  of  per- 
sons who  pick  up  the  paper.  The  advertisement  must 
tell  its  story  quickly  if  at  all.  If  the  message  which  it  is 
capable  of  imparting  to  those  who  glance  at  it  is  invit- 
ing, the  advertisement  may  be  selected  and  read  from 
beginning  to  end.  The  advertiser  should  attempt,  how- 
ever, to  construct  his  advertisement  so  that  a  single 
glance  at  it  may  be  effective  in  imparting  information 
and  in  making  an  impression  even  though  the  advertise- 
ment is  not  to  be  under  observation  for  more  than  a  few 
seconds. 

A  majority  of  the  respondents  answered  the  second 
question,  naming  the  preferred  paper.  (II.  Which 
one  do  you  prefer?)  A  very  respectable  minority,  how- 
ever, confessed  that  they  had  no  preference.  Many  an- 
swered that  one  paper  was  preferred  for  general  news, 
another  for  cartoons,  another  for  special  articles,  an- 
other for  moral  tone,  etc.  Others  refused  to  go  on  record 
as  preferring  any  paper  and  so  expressed  themselves  by 
saying  that  one  paper  was  "less  objectionable,"  "less 
yellow,"  "less  venal,"  etc.,  than  the  others.  Particular 
groups  of  men  displayed  considerable  uniformity  in  their 
preference  for  a  single  paper ;  e.g.,  the  one  hundred  pro- 


382       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

fessional  men  connected  with  one  educational  institution 
preferred  one  paper;  the  business  men  who  were  mem- 
bers of  an  athletic  club  showed  a  decided  preference  for 
another  paper;  the  business  and  professional  men  who 
were  members  of  one  of  the  most  prominent  clubs  pre- 
ferred with  equal  uniformity  still  a  different  paper. 

The  circulation  of  the  evening  papers  in  Chicago  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  morning  papers,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  are  preferred  in  more  cases  than  are  the 
morning  papers.  For  business  and  professional*  men  the 
reverse  is  true;  among  them  the  morning  papers  are 
read  in  larger  numbers  and  are  preferred  in  more  in- 
stances than  the  evening  papers.  With  these  men  the 
evening  papers  are  often  to  be  regarded  merely  as  sub- 
sidiary. The  laboring  classes  have  no  time  to  read  a 
morning  paper,  but  "after  the  day's  work  is  over,  the 
evening  paper  is  read  and  doubtless  much  more  than 
fifteen  minutes  is  devoted  to  it.  Many  business  and 
professional  men  prefer  evening  papers  and  many  labor- 
ing men  prefer  the  morning  papers,  but  such  instances 
are  exceptions  rather  than  the  rule. 

A  majority  of  business  and  professional  men  fail  to 
see  advertisements  appearing  in  evening  papers  and  are 
not  greatly  affected  by  those  that  they  do  see.  Like- 
wise, probably  a  majority  of  the  laboring  class  are  un- 
affected by  advertisements  appearing  in  the  morning 
papers.  If  these  statements  did  not  have  so  many  ex- 
ceptions the  advertiser's  task  would  be  comparatively 
simple  when  it  comes  to  choosing  a  medium  for  any  par- 
ticular advertisement.  If  he  wanted  to  reach  the  better 
classes,  he  would  use  the  morning  papers ;  if  he  wanted 
to  reach  the  laboring  class,  he  would  employ  the  evening 
papers. 

The  replies  from  the  two  thousand  showed  somewhat 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  383 

of  a  uniformity  in  their  selection  of  a  preferred  paper, 
but  the  most  surprising  thing  was  the  lack  of  uniformity. 
This  particular  group  could  not  be  reached  by  using  any- 
thing less  than  all  the  papers.  Perhaps  one-half  of  them 
could  be  reached  by  a  single  paper,  three-fourths  by  two 
papers,  and  over  nine-tenths  of  all  by  using  half  the 
papers. 

The  chief  interest  in  the  investigation  centers  in  the 
answers  to  the  third  question.  (III.  State  in  order 
the  five  features  of  your  paper  which  interest  you  most. ) 

To  reduce  the  answers  to  some  sort  of  a  comprehensible 
unit,  the  following  plan  was  adopted.  A  feature  that 
was  mentioned  as  first  choice  was  credited  with  five 
points ;  one  mentioned  as  second  choice,  four  points ;  one 
mentioned  as  third  choice,  three  points ;  one  mentioned 
as  fourth  choice,  two  points;  one  mentioned  as  fifth 
choice,  one  point.  The  sum  of  all  these  points  was  arbi- 
trarily assumed  to  represent  the  sum  total  of  interest.  It 
was  then  found  what  per  cent,  of  this  total  interest  had 
been  credited  to  politics,  editorials,  and  all  other  features 
mentioned  by  any  of  the  respondents.  As  thus  found, 
the  total  result  for  all  papers  and  all  respondents  is  as 
follows : 

PER  CENT. 

Local  news 17.8 

Political  news 15.8 

Financial  news 11.3 

Foreign  news 9.5 

Editorials 9. 

General  news 7.2 

Ethical  tone( broadly  considered)  6.7 

Sporting  news 5.8 

Cartoons 4.3 

Special  articles 4.3 


384       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISING 

PER  CENT. 

Music 1.88 

Book  reviews 1.84 

Arrangement 1.4 

Society  notes 1.4 

Drama 1.1 

Art 9 

Advertisements 44 

Storiettes 13 

Weather 1 

Humor 05 

Inasmuch  as  these  figures  represent  the  distribution 
as  found  for  all  the  papers  combined,  it  would,  of  course, 
be  anticipated  that  the  same  order  would  not  hold 
exactly  for  any  individual  paper.  In  most  particulars 
there  is  a  pronounced  similarity  in  the  distribution  of 
interest  in  the  different  papers.  This  is  true,  for  in* 
stance,  in  the  case  of  local  news.  In  one  paper  it  monop- 
olizes 19.5  per  cent,  of  the  interest  and  in  the  others 
18.8  per  cent.,  18.3  per  cent,  17.6  per  cent,  14.9  per  cent., 
13.8  per  cent.,  12.8  per  cent.,  and  12.1  per  cent.,  respec- 
tively. In  some  features  the  diversity  between  papers 
is  very  great  Thus  in  one  paper  19  per  cent,  of  the 
interest  is  in  sporting  news,  in  another  but  2  per  cfent. 
In  one  paper  19.7  per  cent,  of  the  interest  is  in  financial 
news,  in  another  but  6.9  per  cent.  These  last  illustrations 
from  sporting  news  and  finance  are  exceptional  in- 
stances, and  even  in  these  the  extremes  are  found  in  the 
papers  that  were  least  often  mentioned  as  the  preferred 
papers.  For  all  the  papers  and  for  all  the  different  groups 
into  which  the  business  and  professional  men  were 
divided  the  striking  fact  was  the  uniformity  of  interests. 
Features  that  were  interesting  to  any  group  in  any 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  385 

paper  were  usually  found  to  be  interesting  in  all  the 
papers  and  to  all  the  groups.  The  features  that  were 
most  uniformly  interesting  were  the  news  items,  which 
possessed  over  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  total  interest. 
All  other  features  were  low  in  interest  with  most  of  the 
groups  and  in  most  of  the  papers.  As  is  indicated  in  the 
tabulation  above,  advertisements  did  not  seem  to  attract 
much  attention. 

These  results  make  it  clear  that  the  Chicago  dailies 
are  valued  as  NEWS  papers  and  as  little  else.  Local 
news,  general  news,  foreign  news,  financial  news,  politi- 
cal news,  and  sporting  news, — these  monopolize  the  inter- 
est of  business  and  professional  men.  Editorials,  stori- 
ettes, book  reviews,  art,  music,  drama,  society, — all 
these  combined  do  not  possess  so  much  interest  as  local 
news  alone.  Every  one  seemed  interested  in  news,  and 
when  cartoons  and  editorials  were  mentioned  the  writers 
were  frequently  careful  to  add  that  they  were  interested 
in  these  because  they  were  a  summary  or  index  of  some 
important  news. 

Advertisements  aiming  to  secure  new  subscribers  to  a 
newspaper  should  give  most  importance  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  news  service  of  that  particular  paper.  Other 
features  might  be  mentioned,  but  the  uniformity  with 
which  all  groups  expressed  their  interest  in  the  news  in 
each  of  the  papers  makes  it  quite  certain  that  here  we 
have  the  vital  feature  of  the  newspaper  and  that  which 
gives  it  its  name. 

The  third  question  should  be  considered  in  connection 
with  the  fifth.  (V.  What  induced  you  to  begin  the 
subscription  of  the  paper  or  papers  which  you  are  now 
taking?)  Immediately  following  the  statement  of  the 
third  question,  as  printed  in  the  questionnaire,  sugges- 
tive answers  were  presented.    This  list  of  examples  acted 


386       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

as  a  constant  suggestion  and  made  it  moi^e  likely  that  the 
answers  cited  would  be  given  than  any  original  ones. 
No  such  suggestions  were  added  to  the  statement  of  the 
fifth  question  and  hence  answers  to  this  latter  question 
are  more  reliable.  While  it  resulted  in  the  presentation 
of  many  different  answers,  still  the  uniformity  with 
which  the  news  items  were  mentioned — observed  in  the 
answers  to  the  third  question — is  even  greater  here. 

Of  all  the  motives  that  could  be  classified,  the  fol- 
lowing show  what  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of 
times  each  motive  was  mentioned : 

To  keep  informed  concerning  current  events 65% 

Ethical  tone  (including  accuracy,  etc.) 10% 

Premiums 4% 

Cartoons * 4% 

Special  articles 3% 

Reputation  of  paper. ., 1% 

Service  (best  delivery) 1% 

All  other  motives  (about  twenty  in  number)  received 
scattering  mention. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  sixty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
business  and  professional  men  united  in  stating  that  the 
motive  in  first  subscribing  to  their  chosen  papers  was  the 
desire  to  keep  informed  concerning  current  events.  The 
following  expressions  were  frequently  used  and  are  most 
suggestive:  "to  keep  in  touch  with  current  events,'' 
"desire  to  be  informed,''  "to  be  informed  as  to  what  is 
going  on,"  "to  be  up  to  the  times  and  not  a  back  num- 
ber," "to  be  en  rapport  with  the  world." 

In  comparison  with  this  desire  for  news  of  current 
events  all  other  motives  seem  insignificant.  News  ser- 
vice is  the  desideratum.     If  a  choice  is  to  be  made  be- 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  387 

tween  papers  equally  good  in  news  service,  then  premi- 
ums and  cartoons  or  even  editorials  and  storiettes  may 
become  the  deciding  factor. 

In  waging  a  campaign  to  increase  the  circulation  of 
newspapers  the  fact  should  be  constantly  before  the  ad- 
vertiser's mind  that  people  are  interested  primarily  in 
the  news.  A  description  of  the  methods  used  by  any 
great  paper  to  secure  the  news  would  be  a  most  power- 
ful argument  for  securing  new  subscribers.  A  presen- 
tation of  all  the  means  employed  to  avoid  mistakes,  and 
hence  to  present  the  news  accurately,  would  furnish  a 
theme  for  further  advertisements.  A  truly  educational 
campaign  carried  on  in  the  interests  of  the  two  theme» — 
completeness  of  news  service  and  care  to  present  the 
truth — would  increase  the  circulation  of  any  of  the 
better  metropolitan  dailies. 

The  questionnaire  invited  no  criticisms  of  daily  papers 
and  yet  many  of  these  business  and  professional  men 
volunteered  criticisms  which  they  inserted  on  the  sheets 
of  questions  or  else  wrote  them  in  personal  letters  that 
were  enclosed.  There  are  but  few  criticisms  of  the  less 
important  features  of  the  papers.  There  are  almost 
no  criticisms  of  the  storiettes,  the  society  notes,  the 
book  reviews,  the  funny  columns,  etc.  All  these  seem 
to  be  as  good  as  desired ;  nor  does  the  reader  express  him- 
self as  aggrieved  by  the  poor  quality  or  even  by  the 
absence  of  any  of  them. 

In  the  main  the  criticism  centered  about  the  news  ser- 
vice, the  editorials,  and  the  general  lack  of  integrity  of 
the  papers.  There  was  no  criticism  of  the  newspapers 
for  failure  to  know  the  facts ;  they  were  criticised  rather 
for  the  failure  to  present  an  unbiased  report.  The  same 
sort  of  criticism  is  made  of  the  editorial  columns.  The 
editor  is  believed  to  be  unduly  influenced  by  the  business 


388       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

manager.  The  phrase  "the  potent  censorship  of  Big 
Business/^  or  some  analogous  expression,  occurred  so 
often  that  it  seemed  to  express  a  general  lack  of  confi- 
dence. 

The  present  research  was  not  devised  to  ascertain  the 
degree  of  confidence  in  newspapers,  and  one  would  not 
be  justified  in  asserting  that  the  lack  of  confidence  is 
general  unless  other  grounds  for  the  statement  were  at 
hand. 

The  newspaper  that  would  be  preferred  by  the  rep- 
resentative business  and  professional  men  might  not  be 
popular  with  other  classes  of  society.  Judging  from  the 
answers  of  two  thousand  men  the  conviction  is  forced 
upon  one  that  they  do  not  care  to  have  a  newspaper 
serve  as  interpreter,  defender,  or  advocate  of  the  truth. 
All  that  is  desired  is  a  brief  but  comprehensive  publica- 
tion of  the  news.  That  editor  will  be  the  most  appreci- 
ated who  selects  the  news  most  wisely  and  presents  the 
unvarnished  truth  in  all  matters  in  which  the  constit- 
uency are  interested.  Some  persons  have  no  interest  in 
the  sporting  pages;  others  never  admit  reading  crimes 
and  casualties.  .Individual  interests  are  so  varied  that 
no  paper  can  expect  general  circulation  without  criti- 
cism from  many  readers  because  of  the  events  empha- 
sized in  news  gathering.  However,  the  readers  do  not 
complain  generally  because  of  the  presence  of  pages  of 
material  that  they  never  read.  The  man  who  is  not  in- 
terested in  finance,  sports,  etc.,  does  not  complain  be- 
cause of  the  presence  of  these  things.  He  does  complain 
because  in  place  of  a  short  and  accurate  account  of 
things  interesting  to  him,  he  finds  long  and  inaccurate 
accounts  of  them.  The  ideal  paper  would  have  to  do 
only  with  facts.  The  news  would  have  to  be  well  writ- 
ten, but  the  interest  would  be  mainly  in  the  news  itself 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  389 

and  not  in  the  reporter's  or  the  publisher's  views  con- 
cerning it. 

There  are  many  persons  who  read  neither  books  nor 
monthly  or  weekly  magazines.  For  them  the  daily 
newspaper  must  supply  the  place  of  all  these.  The 
storiette  is  their  only  literature.  The  editor  and  the  re- 
porter must  interpret  the  daily  events.  The  unbiased 
presentation  of  these  daily  events  would  not  be  adequate. 
For  the  business  and  professional  man  the  circumstances 
are  different.  All  of  the  two  thousand  business  and 
professional  men  answering  my  questionnaire  read  much 
besides  the  daily  papers.  Their  literary  entertainment 
is  found  in  books  and  magazines. 

The  whole  reading  world  desires  to  secure  pleasure 
from  literature,  to  read  articles  which  champion  its 
rights,  and  to  follow  some  great  leader  in  interpreting 
current  events.  That  all  these  functions  are  performed 
in  many  instances  by  the  daily  press  cannot  be  doubted. 
That  the  better  class  of  society  has  passed  beyond  this 
condition  is  likewise  apparent.  The  results  as  presented 
above  make  it  quite  evident  that  for  the  vast  majority 
the  daily  paper  is  merely  a  news  paper.  For  this  class 
the  ideal  paper  would  be  the  one  that  serves  this  interest 
most  perfectly.  Cartoons  would  find  a  place  in  such 
papers  but  they  would  not  be  the  same  sort  of  cartoons 
that  appear  in  the  monthly  comic  papers.  Editorials 
would  find  a  place  but  they  would  be  in  the  main  concise 
statements  concerning  important  events.  Special  articles 
would  be  in  place  in  such  a  paper  but  they  would  deal 
in  the  main  with  current  events.  The  ideal  daily  would 
put  its  emphasis  on  the  field  that  is  not  covered  by  the 
weeklies  and  monthlies.  It  would  also  present  the  events 
of  the  day  in  such  form  that  they  could  be  read  in  fifteen 
minutes;  for  the  busy  man  does  not  devote  more  than 
that  time  to  any  daily  paper. 


390       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

The  question  which  the  advertiser  is  sure  to  raise  in 
this  connection  is,  What  sort  of  advertisements  could 
be  valuable  in  what  might  be  an  ideal  paper  for  the  so- 
called  better  classes?  If  the  ideal  paper  is  fully  ditfer- 
entiated  from  the  weeklies  and  monthlies  in  its  ^^literary 
departments/'  has  it  not  surrendered  to  them  also  the 
field  of  advertising  except  for  the  announcement  of  local 
sales  and  other  similar  events?  Has  it  not  ceased  to  be 
a  competitor  for  national  advertising?  This  conclusion 
does  not  follow ;  for  the  ideal  newspaper,  which  had  the 
full  confidence  of  its  readers,  would  be  a  powerful 
medium  for  all  classes  of  advertisements.  Success  in 
advertising  is  based  on  confidence,  and  one  reason  why 
advertising  rates  are  higher  in  weeklies  and  monthlies 
for  a  proportionate  amount  of  circulation  is  the  fact 
that  at  the  present  time  people  have  more  confidence  in 
these  than  in  the  dailies. 

Potential  customers  are  not  coldly  logical  and  analytic 
in  estimating  commodities.  An  advertisement  seen  on 
garbage  boxes  may  be  a  good  advertisement  and  may 
announce  real  bargains  but  it  possesses  little  influence. 
The  same  advertisement  seen  in  a  cherished  household 
publication  carries  all  the  respect  and  trust  that  has 
been  created  by  the  other  departments  of  the  publica- 
tion. We  do  not  appreciate  even  good  food  if  served 
upon  dirty  dishes.  We  are  not  influenced  even  by  a  good 
advertisement  appearing  in  daily  papers  if  they  seem  to 
us  to  be  in  any  way  unreliable. 

The  present  research  was  not  undertaken  to  discover 
the  value  of  newspapers  as  advertising  media  for  the 
better  class  of  society,  but  to  ascertain  which  motives 
would  appeal  most  profoundly  to  this  class  of  society  in 
inducing  them  to  subscribe  for  newspapers.  Incidentally 
the  fact  is  revealed  that  the  newspapers  do  not  have  the 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  391 

confidence  of  many  of  this  particular  class  of  society. 
If  later  researches  discover  the  fact  that  the  lack  of  con- 
fidence is  general  with  this  class  of  society,  the  results 
may  be  disquieting  to  the  publishers,  but  it  will  result 
in  the  production  of  some  newspapers  which  conform  to 
the  demands  of  this  great  and  influential  body  of  citizens. 
The  sensational  newspaper  may  possess  the  confidence 
of  the  lower  classes  of  society  and  hence  be  a  good  adver- 
tising medium  for  reaching  that  class.  Unless  the  news- 
papers are  a  valuable  medium  with  the  better  classes, 
they  are  not  serviceable  for  many  of  the  most  influential 
advertisers.  The  hope  for  relief  from  sensational  jour- 
nalism is  to  be  found  only  in  the  discovery  of  the  fact 
that  a  very  influential  class  of  business  and  professional 
men  cannot  be  influenced  by  advertisements  appearing 
in  sensational  publications.  That  this  hope  will  be 
realized  may  be  confldently  anticipated  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  similar  results  which  have  been  brought  about 
of  recent  years  in  our  best  weeklies  and  monthlies.  A 
few  years  ago  all  these  publications  contained  adver- 
tisements of  patent  medicines,  questionable  financial 
schemes,  etc.  Many  readers  were  interested  in  these 
advertisements  and  the  space  was  well  paid  for.  The 
significant  fact  was  discovered,  however,  that  more  ad- 
vertising space  could  be  sold  in  high-grade  magazines 
that  did  not  accept  such  advertisements.  The  space  in 
the  cleaner  publications  was  worth  more,  simply  because 
such  publications  secured  the  confidence  of  the  class  of 
society  that  had  the  money  necessary  to  purchase  the 
advertised  goods. 

The  value  of  a  publication  as  an  advertising  medium 
is  in  a  large  degree  determined  by  the  particular  class 
of  citizens  whose  confidence  it  possesses.  This  is  shown 
in  monthlies,  weeklies,  and  dailies.     For  instance,  for 


392       THE   PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

every  thousand  of  circulation  the  advertising  space  in 
the  Century  Magazine  is  worth  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
eight  per  cent,  more  than  that  in  the  Popular  Magazine; 
and  likewise,  space  in  Collier's  Weekly  sells  for  two 
hundred  and  thirty-three  per  cent,  more  than  space  in 
Hearsfs  Sunday  Magazine.  The  Chicago  evening  papers 
are  not  able  to  secure  so  much  for  advertising  space  as 
the  morning  papers,  circulation  considered.  The  results 
of  the  investigation  concerning  the  opinions  of  the  two 
thousand  Chicago  business  and  professional  men  show 
that  the  Chicago  paper  which  was  most  often  preferred 
in  proportion  to  its  total  circulation  is  the  paper  that 
secures,  in  proportion  to  circulation,  a  larger  price  than 
any  of  the  others  for  its  advertising  space.  That  paper 
which  was  the  least  often  preferred  is  the  one  which  is 
compelled  to  sell  its  advertising  space  the  cheapest,  circu- 
lation being  considered  in  both  particulars. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  for  the  better  classes  of  so- 
ciety to  boycott  the  firms  advertising  in  the  sensational 
newspapers — although  such  action  might  hasten  the  day 
of  relief.  If  a  large  proportion  of  the  better  classes  of 
society  lack  confidence  in  newspapers,  then  these  pub- 
lications are  not  so  valuable  as  advertising  media  as  they 
might  be.  Sooner  or  later  the  publishers  will  find  out 
the  facts.  Newspapers  are  sure  to  conform  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  people  because  any  other  policy  would  be 
suicidal  on  the  part  of  the  publishers.  Probably  from 
fifty  to  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  total  income  from  afiy 
newspaper  is  derived  from  its  advertising  pages.  Any- 
thing which  makes  these  pages  valuable  will  be  diligently 
sought  for  even  though  the  policy  adopted  may  reduce 
the  total  subscription  list. 

In  all  the  answers  received  from  business  and  pro- 
fessional men  there  was  no  expression  of  a  hope  that 


QUESTIONNAIRE  METHOD  393 

the  newspapers  would  ever  be  better  than  at  present. 
The  sentiment  seemed  to  be  common  that  they  were 
getting  worse.  Two  facts,  however,  render  this  pessi- 
mistic conclusion  at  least  uncertain  if  not  improbable. 
The  first  fact  is  that  the  newspapers  are  primarily 
dependent  for  their  life  upon  the  income  from  their 
advertising.  The  second  fact  is  that  the  value  of  these 
pages  is  largely  determined  by  the  confidence  which  the 
public  has  in  the  paper  as  a  whole ;  for  lack  of  confidence 
in  one  part  is  unconsciously  extended  to  all  parts.  The 
better  American  metropolitan  daily  is  a  wonderful  em- 
bodiment of  enterprise.  If  it  would  be  strengthened  as 
an  advertising  medium  by  an  increased  confidence  on  the 
part  of  the  better  classes  of  society,  it  is  quite  certain 
that  the  publishers  will  be  equal  to  the  emergency  and 
will  produce  a  paper  that  meets  the  enlightened  and 
cultured  demands. 

The  Questionnaire  Method  is  available  in  securing 
data  valuable  in  planning  an  advertising  campaign.  If 
the  questions  asked  are  reasonable  and  interesting  and  if 
the  motives  of  the  person  carrying  on  the  research  are 
not  questioned,  a  large  proportion  of  business  and  pro- 
fessional men  will  fill  out  the  blank. 

Most  business  and  professional  men  read  more  than 
one  daily  and  hence  may  be  reached  by  an  advertisement 
even  though  it  is  not  inserted  in  all  the  papers.  Adver- 
tisements inserted  both  in  the  best  and  also  in  the  poorer 
papers  are  largely  lost  in  the  latter  because  of  duplica- 
tion of  circulation. 

Most  business  and  professional  men  spend  about  fif- 
teen minutes  daily  reading  papers.  The  amount  of  time 
spent  in  reading  advertisements  must  be  very  small. 
Hence  advertisements  should  be  so  constructed  that 
they  will  carry  their  message  at  a  single  glance. 


394       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Business  and  professional  men  subscribe  for  dailies 
because  of  the  desire  for  news.  Prizes,  editorials,  stori- 
ettes, etc.,  are  of  secondary  importance  in  inducing  these 
men  to  subscribe  for  any  particular  paper. 

These  business  and  professional  men  lacked  confidence 
in  their  preferred  daily  papers.  Hence  advertisements 
seen  in  such  publications  do  not  have  the  greatest  pos- 
sible influence.  The  newspaper  is,  from  the  publisher's 
point  of  view,  primarily  an  advertising  medium  and  can 
attain  its  maximum  value  only  when  it  secures  the  full 
confidence  of  its  readers.  This  fact  may  lead  to  an  im- 
provement in  the  ethical  standards  of  our  daily  papers. 


SOCIAL  SEEVICE  OF  ADVERTISING      395 


XXX 

THE  SOCIAL  SERVICE  OF  ADVERTISING 

The  most  widely  known  advertiser  of  the  past  genera- 
tion worked  on  the  assumption  that  the  American  public 
likes  to  be  humbugged.  The  advertising  of  the  late  P.  T. 
Barnum  is  still  thought  of  by  many  as  typical  of  all  ad- 
vertising. His  style  might  be  characterized  as  consum- 
mate skill  in  the  use  of  bombast,  hyperbole,  and  deceit. 
By  glare  of  color,  by  exaggeration  of  description,  and  by 
grandeur  of  parades  it  bamboozled  many  innocent  cit- 
izens into  attending  the  menagerie,  the  circus,  and  the 
side  shows.  Such  methods  of  advertising  are  so  far 
removed  from  the  methods  pursued  by  continuous  and 
successful  advertising  of  to-day  that  it  seems  unjust  to 
assign  the  same  name  to  both. 

The  advertising  of  Barnum  was  founded  on  the  fact 
that  he  could  hoodwink  the  public  with  profit  to  himself. 
Such  advertising  should  be  called  hamboozling  the  public 
rather  than  advertising.  The  best  advertising  cam- 
paigns of  to-day  are  founded  on  the  assumption  that  the 
confidence  of  the  public  can  be  won  by  service  rendered 
and  when  secured  is  the  business  man^s  most  valuable 
asset.  Such  advertising  might  properly  be  designated 
as  the  modern  form  of  salesmanship. 

As  human  beings  we  are  so  organized  into  groups  and 
subgroups  that  no  one  person  can  act  in  any  way  with- 
out affecting  the  other  members  of  the  group  of  which  he 
is  a  member.     If  one  negro  commits  a  nefarious  crime, 


396       THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

all  his  race  fall  in  our  estimation.  If  one  black  man 
develops  into  a  Booker  T.  Washington,  we  are  likely  to 
expect  unprecedented  evolution  of  his  entire  race.  If 
by  chance  we  come  into  contact  with  a  Chinese  gentle- 
man of  unusual  intellectual  and  moral  worth,  we  are 
inclined  to  look  for  the  orientalization  of  the  world. 

As  our  opinion  of  a  whole  race  is  prejudiced  by  a  few 
individuals  of  that  race,  so  too  is  our  judgment  of  the 
classes  within  the  race  biased  by  a  few  examples.  One 
notorious  slugger  and  dynamiter  prejudices  a  million 
against  all  laborers.  One  corrupt  capitalist  awakens  a 
popular  distrust  of  the  well-to-do  classes. 

If  a  single  person  can  affect  the  reputation  of  his 
entire  nationality,  and  if  each  member  of  a  group  can 
affect  the  reputation  of  the  entire  group,  a  single  adver- 
tiser has  to  an  extreme  degree  the  power  to  affect  the 
reputation  of  all  advertisers.  A  dishonest  advertiser 
is  a  double  menace  to  all  of  his  associates,  not  only  be- 
cause he  actually  deceives  and  defrauds  the  unwary,  but 
also  because  by  his  wide  publicity  he  subjects  all  adver- 
tisers to  the  scorn  of  the  sophisticated. 

Modern  advertising  has  the  important  and  difficult 
task  of  overcoming  the  prejudice  created  by  the  exploit- 
ers of  the  past  generation  and  perpetuated  by  the  few 
disreputable  advertisers  of  the  present  time. 

In  a  recent  research  on  the  psychology  of  advertising, 
21,820  persons  answered  one  or  more  of  the  following 
three  questions : 

Do  you  answer  advertisements? 

Are  you  satisfied? 

If  not,  what  is  your  complaint? 

Of  that  number  17,855  asserted  that  they  made  use 
of  advertisements.  The  remaining  3,965  declared  that 
they  never  had  answered  advertisements,  or  else  had 


SOCIAL  SEKVICE  OF  ADVEKTISING      397 

ceased  to  do  so.  Of  the  3,965  who  did  not  answer  adver- 
tisements, the  overwhelming  majority  said  they  did  not 
trust  the  statements  of  the  advertisers.  Practically  all 
would  have  been  glad  to  make  use  of  advertisements  and 
would  have  done  so  if  it  were  not  for  this  element  of 
distrust. 

Of  the  17,855  who  had  answered  advertisements,  over 
ninety  per  cent,  of  them  reported  that  their  experience 
had  been  perfectly  satisfactory. 

This  fact  comes  out  in  the  results  of  the  research: 
Although  it  is  lack  of  confidence  that  makes  the  public 
hesitate  to  ansiver  advertisements y  yet  the  number  of 
persons  who,  are  disappointed  in  answering  advertise- 
ments has  become  relatively  small. 

'No  class  of  society,  no  professional,  industrial,  or  com- 
mercial group  can  win  and  retain  the  confidence  and 
respect  of  the  public  without  adequate  cause.  In  a 
recent  research  in  social  psychology,  one  hundred  adults 
of  experience  were  asked  their  judgments  on  these  two 
questions: 

Fifty  years  ago,  which  group  held  most  completely 
the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  American  public, — ^^the 
lawyer,  the  physician,  the  business  man,  the  minister, 
or  the  professor? 

To-day  which  group  holds  most  completely  the  respect 
and  confidence  of  the  American  public, — the  lawyer,  the 
physician,  the  business  man,  the  minister,  or  the  pro- 
fessor? 

The  general  consensus  of  opinion  of  the  one  hundred 
respondents  was  that  the  business  man  was  clearly  not 
the  most  respected  fifty  years  ago,  but  that  during  these 
past  five  decades  he  had  been  progressing  until  to-day 
he  outranks  all  his  competitors  in  gaining  the  respect 
and  confidence  of  the  public. 


398       THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Fifty  years  ago  the  advertiser  was  one  of  the  least  re- 
spected members  of  one  of  the  least  respected  classes  of 
society.  To-day  he  is  one  of  the  most  highly  respected 
members  of  the  most  highly  respected  class  of  society. 
Such  a  remarkable  change  in  social  status  cannot  be 
accidental,  but  is  the  result  of  a  psychological  law  that 
will  continue  to  control  the  further  evolution  of  adver- 
tising. 

In  general,  society  has  given  its  most  profound  respect 
and  confidence  to  that  class  of  society  which  renders  the 
service  which  is  felt  as  the  most  insiste^it  and  most  vital. 
Because  of  this  fact  the  holders  of  social  prestige  differ 
from  nation  to  nation  and  from  age  to  age  according  as 
these  needs  change  from  time  to  time  and  from  place  to 
place. 

The  most  highly  respected  class  in  Germany  previous 
to  November,  1918,  was  clearly  not  the  commercial  class. 
Germany  was  comparatively  a  small  country  territori- 
ally and  was  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  nations  jealous 
of  her  and  supposedly  desirous  of  humiliating  her.  The 
most  pressing  need  of  the  German  was  supposed  to  be 
protection  from  these  dreaded  foreign  foes.  The  Ger- 
man army  satisfied  this  need.  The  military  man  was 
therefore  looked  upon  in  Germany  as  the  one  indis- 
pensable member  of  society.  He  alone  could  perform  the 
task  which  the  patriotic  Germans  most  desired  to  have 
accomplished.  Because  of  this  fact,  the  social  prestige 
in  Germany  was  held  by  the  military  class.  Where  pos- 
sible, the  German  traced  his  ancestor  to  a  man  of  mili- 
tary achievement.  If  a  father,  his  ambition  for  his  sons 
was  that  they  might  become  officers  in  the  army;  his 
highest  ambition  for  a  daughter  was  that  she  might 
become  the  wife  of  a  soldier.  Every  German  took  off 
his  hat  when  he  met  an  army  officer.     This  homage  was 


SOCIAL  SERVICE  OF  ADVERTISING       399 

bestowed  because  of  the  service  rendered  by  the  military 
class,  the  supposed  preservation  of  the  integrity  of  the 
Fatherland. 

From  the  sixth  to  the  thirteenth  century,  Europe  was 
inhabited  by  peoples  submerged  in  ignorance  and  super- 
stition. The  blight  of  the  crop,  the  destruction  of  the 
cattle,  the  hurricane,  disease,  pain,  and  death  were  all 
looked  upon  as  the  working  of  unseen  and  supernatural 
powers.  Their  most  pressing  felt  need  was  deliverance 
from  these  malign  forces.  Such  a'  deliverance  was 
offered  by  the  priest.  The  priest  not  only  offered  escape 
from  future  eternal  punishment,  but  he  interceded  for 
the  living  individual  as  well,  and  freed  him  from  the 
dread  of  unfriendly  supernatural  forces.  The  priest 
thus  rendered  the  service  which  the  individual  felt  as  the 
profoundest  necessity.  As  a  result  of  such  services,  the 
priestly  class  was  given  the  place  of  social  prestige.  The 
Emperor  bowed  down  to  the'  Pope,  and  one-third  of  the 
soil  of  Europe  passed  by  free-will  offerings  into  the  hands 
of  the  clergy. 

In  every  land  and  in  all  ages  there  is  a  felt  need  for 
the  formulation,  adjudication,  and  execution  of  laws. 
The  criminal  must  be  restrained,  justice  between  citizens 
secured,  and  the  rights  of  the  individual  protected. 
When  the  ruling  class  renders  such  service,  society 
grants  to  the  political  ruler  and  to  his  associates  un- 
rivaled social  prestige. 

From  1865  to  1900  the  United  States  passed  through 
a  period  of  unprecedented  commercial  and  industrial 
expansion.  The  most  pressing  felt  need  of  the  nation 
was  the  building  of  railroads,  the  stretching  of  wires,  the 
sinking  of  wells,  the  digging  of  mines,  the  construction 
of  manufacturing  plants,  and  the  organization  of  in- 
dustry on  a  national  and  international  scale.     This  was 


400       THE    PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

a  service  that  the  capitalist  could  and  did  render.  Hence 
it  was  that  during  the  period  from  1865  to  1900  the  cap- 
italist was  the  American  idol.  We  looked  up  to  him  and 
permitted  him  to  dictate  our  laws  and  our  national 
policy.  Mothers  discarded  the  traditions  of  Achilles,  of 
David,  and  of  King  Arthur,  but  awakened  the  ambitions 
of  their  sons  by  narrating  the  achievements  of  the  cap- 
tains of  industry. 

But,  suppose  a  German  army  did  preserve  the  nation 
from  the  fear  of  foreign  aggression  and  did  win  the  con- 
fidence and  respect  of  the  German;  suppose  the  priest- 
hood did  free  the  medieval  Europeans  from  the  dread  of 
unseen  forces  and  thus  secured  the  first  place  in  the  esti- 
mation of  the  inhabitants  of  the  continent  of  Europe; 
suppose  the  ruling  classes  in  many  ages  and  nations 
have  protected  their  peoples  from  injustice  and  oppres- 
sion and  thus  won  the  fealty  of  their  subjects ;  suppose 
the  capitalists  in  America 'have  enabled  the  nation  to 
organize  her  activities  on  a  more  extensive  plan  and  have 
thus  received  in  return  the  homage  of  all  America, — 
what  of  all  this?    What  has  it  to  do  with  advertising? 

It  has  ordinarily  been  assumed  that  no  man  goes  in 
for  advertising  except  to  make  money,  that  it  is  not  his 
purpose  to  shield  the  citizen  from  foreign  aggressions, 
vj  to  protect  the  ignorant  from  unseen  enemies,  to  banish 

fraud,  or  to  organize  industry  for  the  benefit  of  the  pub- 
lic in  any  way.  The  twentieth-century  conception  is 
that,  although  no  man  goes  in  for  advertising  unless  he 
expects  to  find  it  profitable,  the  only  way  to  make  money 
in  advertising  is  to  render  social  service.  Occasionally 
an  ancient  pirate  retained  his  booty  to  the  end.  We  all 
know  of  instances  where  by  fraud  and  corruption 
fortunes  have  been  amassed.  Highwaymen,  counterfeit- 
ers, forgers,  and  def rauders  are  not  always  restrained, 


SOCIAL  SERVICE  OF  ADVERTISING       401 

yet  we  all  agree  that  in  business,  honesty  is  the  best 
polieyi  Advertising  is  the  outcome  of  a  social  evolution. 
The  advertiser  is,  in  the  last  analysis,  the  servant  of  the 
ultimate  consumer.  Only  in  so  far  as  he  proves  to  be 
an  efficient  servant  does  he  receive  the  respect  and  con- 
fidence of  his  master,  the  ultimate  consumer. 

To-day  we  have  come  to  see  that  the  crucial  estimate 
of  the  work  of  the  advertiser  is  service  to  the  ultimate 
consumer.  By  approximating  this  standard  the  adver- 
tiser has  arisen  in  social  prestige.  But  until  his  adver- 
tising is  conducted  strictly  in  the  interest  of  the  ultimate 
consumer  he  will  never  win  the  complete  confidence  of 
the  public  and  occupy  the  position  of  prestige  to  which 
he  may  possibly  attain. 

But  few,  if  any  of  us,  to-day  believe  that  the  position 
of  the  United  States  among  the  nations  of  the  earth  is  to 
be  effected  by  military  force.  We  are  not  likely  to  be 
invaded  by  a  hostile  army,  and  we  are  not  likely  to  better 
our  condition  by  conquest.  Our  national  struggle  is  to 
be  economic  and  not  military.  The  greatest  menace  to 
America's  prosperity  to-day  is  the  high  cost  of  living. 
We  have  largely  solved  our  problems  of  production  and 
manufacture,  but  our  problem  of  distribution  is  with 
the  future.  The  cost  which  is  added  to  the  product, 
after  it  leaves  the  producer  or  manufacturer,  and  before 
it  reaches  the  ultimate  consumer,  is  so  enormous  that  it 
would  seem  no  people  could  continue  to  pay  it  year  after 
year  and  not  become  impoverished.  One  single  item  in 
the  distribution  of  merchandise  is  general  advertising. 
America's  annual  contribution  to  such  advertising  is 
commonly  estimated  at  |800,000,000.  It  has  been  stated 
by  various  advertising  experts  that  much  of  this  adter- 
tising  is  so  unwisely  done,  that  three-fourths  of  it  is  lost 
annually. 


402       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

The  annual  expense  for  traveling  salesmen  is  said  to 
approximate  $1,600,000,000,  or  double  that  for  general 
advertising.  It  is  possible  that  if  advertising  were  suffi- 
ciently well  done,  the  number  of  traveling  salesmen 
could  be  decreased  so  that  the  expense  for  such  salesmen 
would  be  reduced  to  $800,000,000  annually;  that  is  to 
say,  $800,000,000,  the  expense  of  traveling  salesmen, 
would  be  made  equal  to  the  amount  now  expended  an- 
nually for  advertising.  This  economy  alone  would  save 
the  American  people  $800,000,000  annually.  Such  an 
amount,  if  spent  for  food,  and  applied  to  the  right  places, 
would  probably  be  sufficient  to  drive  want  from  the  home 
of  every  needy  family  in  America.  Every  dollar 
squandered  in  distribution  is  lost  to  the  ultimate  con- 
sumer. On  the  other  hand,  the  ultimate  consumer  re- 
ceives the  benefit  from  every  dollar  that  is  wisely  spent 
on  advertising,  because  efficient  advertising  is  the  most 
economical  form  known  of  distributing  merchandise. 

One  of  the  favorite  questions  for  debate  in  the  old- 
fashioned  debating  society  was.  Which  is  mightier,  the 
pen  or  the  sword?  In  Germany  the  soldier  was  better 
trained  than  the  advertiser,  the  soldier's  service  was 
more  important  in  the  eyes  of  the  patriotic  citizen,  and 
the  soldier  was  esteemed  more  highly  than  the  adver- 
tiser. But  in  Germany  the  new  generation  is  less  en- 
thusiastic for  war  and  more  enthusiastic  for  commercial 
efficiency.  In  America  the  advertiser  is  as  well  trained 
as  the  soldier.  The  distribution  of  the  necessities  of  life 
is  recognized  as  a  greater  social  service  than  intimidat- 
ing Indians  and  strikers  or  parading  on  Decoration  Day. 
If  the  advertiser  renders  a  greater  social  service  than 
the  soldier,  society  will  be  willing  to  award  him  honor 
and  fitting  remuneration. 

In  the  hand  of  the  efficient  advertiser  the  pen  wields 


SOCIAL  SERVICE  OF  ADVERTISING       403 

the  mightier  influence  for  the  prosperity  of  America  than 
a  musket  in  the  hands  of  a  national  volunteer.  Society 
ultimately  rewards  those  who  render  needed  service  and 
it  is  no  surprise  that  the  advertiser  is  coming  to  his  own 
in  the  estimation  and  esteem  of  our  people. 

Until  the  last  century  the  typical  American  family 
lived  in  the  country  or  in  a  small  village.  The  needs  of 
the  family  appear  to  us  to  have  been  pathetically  few. 
Practically  all  the  provisions  for  the  table  were  raised 
in  the  family  garden  or  purchased  from  producers  in  the 
vicinity.  If  the  flour  was  had  from  the  miller,  he  was  a 
neighbor  known  personally  to  all  of  his  customers. 
Every  man  in  the  community  knew  the  quality  of  wheat 
used  for  grinding  and  had  watched  the  process  of  manu- 
facture from  the  time  the  wheat  left  the  bin  until  it  was 
tied  up  as  flour  in  the  sack.  The  purchaser  knew  the 
products  as  well  as  did  the  manufacturer  himself. 

The  clothing  was  not  infrequently  spun  and  made 
up  in  the  home.  When  garments  were  purchased,  the 
buyer  was  in  a  position  to  judge  of  the  quality  and  price 
of  the  goods,  for  the  source  of  material  and  the  method 
of  manufacture  were  known  to  him. 

The  principal  method  of  transportation  was  by  means 
of  the  horse.  Every  purchaser  of  a  horse  knew  the 
weak  and  the  strong  points  of  the  animal.  Not  infre- 
quently he  had  known  the  horse  by  name  from  the  time 
it  was  a  colt.  The  seller  and  the  buyer  were  on  equal 
footing  and  the  joy  of  trading  horses  was  recognized 
among  our  ancestors. 

If  any  form  of  investment  were  to  be  made,  it  might 
be  the  purchase  of  real  estate  in  the  vicinity,  a  part  inter- 
est in  a  neighboring  industry,  or  perhaps  a  government 
bond. 

Food,  clothing,  transportation,  and  investment  were 


404       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVEKTISING 

typical  wants  of  our  ancestors.  The  seller  and  the 
buyer  possessed  equal  knowledge  of  the  merchandise. 
This  fact  was  recognized  by  law  under  the  principle 
caveat  emptor.  Translated  in  simple  English  this  legal 
term  means,  Let  the  purchaser  beware.  The  legal  as- 
sumption was,  that  if  the  purchaser  exercised  due  pre- 
caution he  would  not  be  cheated.  If  he  was  cheated,  no 
one  was  to  blame  but  himself. 

Alas,  alas,  that  the  day  of  the  self-sufficient  and  com- 
petent purchaser  has  passed !  You  and  I  look  with  pity 
on  the  medieval  European  who,  surrounded  with  the 
mysteries  of  pain  and  death,  and  oppressed  with  the 
dread  of  unseen  powers,  turned  to  the  priest  for  guid- 
ance and  protection.  It  is  necessary  but  to  call  your 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  ultimate  consumer  in 
America  is  in  a  position  quite  comparable  to  that  of  his 
or  her  ancient  European  ancestor.  When  the  woman  of 
the  house  steps  to  the  telephone  to  order  provisions  for 
the  morrow  she  is  haunted  with  the  visions  of  the  unseen 
world — microbes,  poison,  adulterations,  and  substitu- 
tions. These  are  horrors  and  monsters  of  which  person- 
ally she  can  have  no  knowledge  and  over  which  she  can 
have  no  control. 

When  she  orders  clothing  for  her  household  she  fears 
that  the  prints  are  not  permanent,  that  the  woolens  are 
cotton,  and  that  the  leather  is  paper.  It  is  quite  beyond 
her  power  to  judge  of  the  quality  or  the  value  of  all  her 
purchases. 

The  buyer  of  an  automobile,  the  holder  of  a  ticket  on 
a  railroad  or  a  steamboat,  is  unable  to  judge  for  himself 
as  to  the  quality  of  material  and  workmanship  that  goes 
into  the  construction  of  his  vehicle  of  transportation. 

The  man  and  the  woman  having  money  to  invest  know 
little  or  nothing  of  the  business  methods  of  the  corpora- 


SOCIAL  SERVICE  OF  ADVERTISING       405 

tion  in  whose  securities  they  invest  their  earnings.  They 
are  not  in  a  position  to  investigate  the  business  for  them- 
selves, nor  can  they  afford  to  secure  the  services  of  com- 
petent attorneys  or  experts  to  make  independent  reports 
for  them,  because  the  cost  of  this  investigation  would  as 
a  rule  far  exceed  the  amount  of  the  investment. 

The  ultimate. consumer  in  America,  in  making  his  pur- 
chases, is  in  a  peculiarly  dependent  condition.  In  case 
of  need,  society  seeks  a  protection.  At  the  present  junc- 
ture the  honest  distributor,  and  particularly  the  honor- 
able advertiser,  is  assuming  the  responsibility  of  protect- 
ing the  ignorant. 

The  publishers  of  some  of  our  best  magazines  allow 
no  advertisement  to  appear  in  their  pages  unless  the  firm 
placing  the  advertisement  is  financially  and  otherwise 
responsible,  and  unless  the  advertisement  contains  only 
statements  deemed  to  be  truthful. 

A  few  of  the  best  advertising  agencies  refuse  to  give 
their  advice  to  firms  conducting  questionable  business. 
Such  agencies  refuse  business  on  the  ground  that  the 
merchandise  offered  for  sale  renders  no  social  service — 
it  neither  reduces  the  cost  of  living  nor  adds  to  the  rich- 
ness of  life. 

Our  best  mercantile  houses  exercise  the  greatest  pre- 
caution to  see  that  their  advertisements  in  no  way  de- 
ceive the  readers  or  arouse  false  hope.  The  advertise- 
ments are  written,  not  mainly  to  dispose  of  a  particular 
line  of  goods,  but  to  provide  possible  customers  with 
store  news  and  to  create  good  will. 

Likewise  the  advertising  campaigns  of  our  best  "bond 
houses  are  planned,  not  primarily  to  sell  any  particular 
securities^  hut  to  educate  the  public  to  discriminate  be- 
tween sound  and  unsound  investments.  By  such  educa- 
tional campaigns  the  public  is  being  taught  to  be  wary 


406       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

of  investments  exploited  by  promises  of  inordinately 
high  income  return  or  hy  promises  of  certainty  of  rise 
in  value.  When  the  public  is  thus  educated  it  avoids 
the  tipster,  the  tout,  and  the  man  of  the  sure-thing 
gamble,  and  it  seeks  out  the  house  that  offers  investment 
service,  that  offers  a  diversity  of  sound  investment,  that 
places  safety  above  speculation,  principle  above  high 
interest,  and  bases  its  business  on  its  ability  to  keep 
its  customers  rather  than  on  its  ability  to  continue  to 
get  a  lot  of  new  business. 

One  of  the  principal  services  rendered  society  by  the 
political  ruler  and  his  associates  is  the  creation  of  laws, 
their  adjudication  and  execution.  This  service  is  ten- 
dered primarily  in  the  interests  of  social  justice.  In  the 
present  state  of  the  commercial  world,  our  governmental 
powers  are  unable  to  render  such  service  in  any  adequate 
degree. 

Mr.  R.  S.  Sharp,  Chief  Post-Office  Inspector,  reports 
that  during  a  recent  year  the  American  public  handed 
over  177,000,000  to  men  who  were  later  convicted  of 
fraud.  A  large  part  of  this  |77,000,000  was  secured  as 
a  result  of  fraudulent  advertising.  Each  year  there  is  a 
new  brood.  The  Post-Office  Department  is  unable  to 
prevent  fraudulent  advertising.  The  best  it  can  do  is  to 
punish  a  few  of  the  worst  offenders  after  they  have  de- 
frauded the  public  of  millions  of  dollars  annually  and 
made  the  public  suspicious  of  all  advertisers.  There  is 
no  force  in  America  that  can  suppress  fraudulent  adver- 
tising and  thus  win  the  confidence  of  the  public  in  adver- 
tisements except  the  advertisers  themselves. 

The  honest  advertisers  of  America  are  awakening  to 
the  fact  that  they  alone  possess  the  power  to  eliminate 
the  fraudulent  advertiser.  No  advertising  publication 
can  flourish  unless  it  receives  the  patronage  of  the 


SOCIAL  SERVICE  OF  ADVERTISING       407 

reputable  advertisers.  When,  therefore,  the  reputable 
advertisers  refuse  to  buy  space  in  publications  carrying 
questionable  advertisements  the  fraudulent  advertiser  is 
forced  from  the  field.  When  reputable  manufacturers 
refuse  to  place  their  accounts  with  agencies  handling  the 
business  of  any  questionable  firms,  the  criminal  destroy- 
ers of  public  confidence  are  unable  to  exploit  their  com- 
modities. 

In  so  far  as  educational  advertising  campaigns  teach 
the  public  to  discriminate  between  the  honest  merchant 
and  the  faker,  the  houses  conducting,the  campaigns  not 
only  gain  customers,  they  also  render  a  social  service 
of  incalculable  value. 

During  the  last  six  or  seven  decades  the  capitalist  has 
made  possible  the  expansion  of  American  industries.  He 
has  supplied  the  plant  and  the  equipment.  The  rail- 
roads, the  rural  route,  the  irrigating  ditch,  the  wells  and 
the  mines  are  now  realities,  and  should  be  utilized  in 
the  service  of  the  public.  Expansion  would  be  useless 
unless  a  comprehensive  and  economical  method  of  dis- 
tribution were  provided.  Because  of  these  services,  the 
capitalist  has  won  our  esteem,  but  the  greater  task  of 
distribution  is  left  to  the  advertiser.  There  is  no  real 
service  in  scientific  manufacture  on  a  large  scale  unless 
there  can  be  a  final  reduction  in  cost  to  the  ultimate 
consumer.  When  the  cost  of  distribution  shall  have 
been  lessened  as  has  the  cost  of  production,  then,  not  the 
capitalist,  but  the  advertiser  will  be  heralded  as  the 
captain  of  industry. 

The  advertiser  in  the  past  may  have  been  the  exploiter 
of  the  public,  but  the  new  generation  of  advertisers  are 
becoming  more  and  more  the  protectors  of  society.  In 
the  past  they  may  have  in  all  too  many  instances  misled 
the  unwary,  but  the  successful  advertisers  of  to-day  are 


408       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

becoming  the  trusted  guides  of  the  ultimate  consumer. 
The  fraudulent  advertiser  has  not  yet  become  extinct, 
nevertheless  the  great  body  of  advertisers  in  America 
is  to-day  one  of  the  most  substantial  forces  in  protecting 
the  public  from  fraud. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  *         409 


XXXI 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  literature  on  the  subject  of  advertising  has  enor- 
mously increased  since  the  last  revision  of  this  work. 
The  books  cited  in  the  following  list  have  been  carefully 
selected,  and  although  some  of  them  are  of  relatively 
minor  significance,  a  familiarity  with  them  is  well 
worth  the  while  of  all  vitally  concerned  with  the  science 
or  the  art  of  advertising;  In  view  of  the  size  of  the 
present  list  it  has  seemed  necessary  to  omit  reference 
to  the  studies  of  specific  forms  of  advertising  such  as 
bank  advertising,  drygoods  advertising,  etc.  The  prices 
given  are  neither  complete  nor  vouched  for  as  final. 

ACHERSON,   A. 

TRADEMARK   ADVERTISING  AS   AN   INVESTMENT.      The  NcW    Yovk 

Evening  Post,  New  York,  1917,  pp.  35,  $1.00.  Several  well- 
written  little  articles  on  the  value  of  the  trademark  in  ad- 
vertising. 

Adams,  Henry  Foster. 

ADVERTISING    AND    ITS    MENTAL    LAWS.      Macmillan     Co.,    NeW 

York,  1916,  pp.  333,  $1.50.  A  psychological  interpretation  of 
advertising.  A  thoroughgoing  attempt  to  reduce  the  com- 
plexities of  printed  advertisements  to  their  elements. 
Scientific  and  reliable. 

Allen,  Frederic  J. 

ADVERTISING  AS  A  VOCATION.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1919. 
An  excellent  study  of  the  subject  of  advertising.  Traces  its 
historical  development.  Describes  carefully  the  methods 
and   mediums   of   retail   and   manufacturing   advertising. 


410       THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

Contains  a  chapter  on  the  ethics  of  advertising  and  the 
qualities,  training,  etc.,  necessary  for  success  in  this 
profession. 

American  Association  of  Foreign -Language  Newspapers. 

THE  UNREACHED  MILLIONS.  American  Association  of  Foreign- 
Language  Newspapers,  New  York,  1909,  pp.  55.  A  short 
pamphlet  which  contains  some  interesting  ideas  on  the  ad- 
vertising directed  toward  foreigners  in  this  country. 

American  Printer. 

THE  AMERICAN  MANUAL  OF  TYPOGRAPHY.  The  Oswald  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  Neiv  York,  1905,  pp.  105,  $Jf.OO.  An  exhaustive 
exposition  of  the  various  phases  of  type-composition.  This 
volume  is  prepared  by  a  number  of  experts  and  represents 
the  best,  to  date,  in  typography. 

Arren,  J. 

LA    PUBLICITE    LUCRATIVE    ET    RAISONNEB.      SON    ROLE    DANS    LES 

AFFAIRES.  Bihliotheque  des  ouvrages  pratiques,  1909,  pp. 
Jf36.  The  author  claims  this  as  the  first  work  written  in 
French  on  the  subject.  He  describes  it  as  a. study  of  ad- 
vertising, its  place,  its  methods,  and  its  results.  It  is 
illustrated  by  accounts  of  the  launching  of  notable  adver- 
tising campaigns  in  France. 

Balmer,  Edwin. 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  ADVERTISING.  Duffteld  &  Co.,  Ncw  York,  1910, 
pp.  64. 

Balmer,  Thomas. 

SOME  sunken  rocks  IN  ADVERTISING.  Buttcrick  Co.,  New 
York,  1906,  pp.  26. 

Barsodi,  William. 

advertising  cyclopedia  of  selling  phrases;  short  talks  by 
merchants  and  advertisement  writers,  classified  to  facili- 
tate the  expression  of  ideas  and  assist  merchants  in 
general  lines  of  business  and  specialists  in  the  prepara- 
TION OF  ADVERTISING  COPY.  The  Advertiscrs  Cyclopedia  Co., 
New  York,  1909,  pp.  1360,  $15.00. 


BIBLIOGEAPHY  411 

Bates,  Charles  Austin. 

THE  ART  AND  LITERATURE  OP  BUSINESS.  Bates  Advertising 
Co.,  New  York,  1902,  6  volumes,  pp.  2221,  $25.00.  The  work 
contains  no  table  of  contents,  and  the  index  fills  the  entire 
sixth  volume  of  324  pages.  The  work  is  intended  to  be  an 
encyclopedia  of  advertising  although  this  is  not  made  clear 
by  the  title.  It  is  in  the  main  a  most  creditable  production 
and  in  spite  of  minor  deficiencies  should  be  a  part  of  every 
advertiser's  library. 

Bellamy,  Francis,  Editor. 

EFFECTIVE  MAGAZINE  ADVERTISING.  With  an  introduction 
''The  Science  of  Advertising  Copy,"  Mitchell  Kennerley, 
New  York,  1909,  pp.  361,  $5.00. 

Berkwitz,  William  Leonard. 

THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  THE  MAIL  ORDER  BUSINESS.     PuhUshcd  hy 

the  author.  New  York,  1908,  pp.  270,  $5.00- 

Bird,  Thomas  Alexander. 

SALES  PLANS.  The  Merchants'  Record  Co.,  Chicago,  1906, 
pp.  282,  $2.50.  A  book  filled  with  schemes  for  increasing 
business.  A  collection  of  three  hundred  and  thirty-three 
successful  ways  of  getting  business,  including  a  great  va- 
riety of  practical  plans  that  have  been  used  by  retail  mer- 
chants to  advertise  and  sell  goods. 

Breitwieser,  Joseph  Valentine. 

psychological  advertising.  Apex  Book  Co.,  Colorado 
Springs,  1915,  pp.  167,  $0.80.  Evidently  intended  as  a  begin- 
ners' text-book.    Touches  lightly  upon  a  number  of  topics. 

Bridgewater,  Howard. 

advertising;  or  the  art  of  making  known:  a  simple  ex- 
position OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ADVERTISING.  I.  Pitman  &  Son, 
New  York,  1910,  pp.  102.  A  short  book  on  the  principles  of 
advertising  especially  as  applied  to  conditions  in  England. 

Bunting,  Henry  S. 

SPECIALTY  ADVERTisiNc;.  Novclty  Ncws  Prcss,  Chicago,  1914, 
pp.  163. 


412      THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISING 

Bunting,  Henry  S. 

the  premium  system  of  forcing  sales  i  its  principles,  laws, 
AND  USES.  Novelty  News  Press,  Chicago,  1913,  pp.  180, 
$2.00.  A  study  of  premium  systems  of  various  kinds  and  a 
plea  for  their  use  as  an  advertising  device. 

Bunting,  Henry  S. 

THE  elementary  LAWS  OF  AD\^RTISING  AND  HOW  TO  USE  THEM. 

Novelty  News  Press,  Chicago,  1913,  pp.  188.  Written  for 
the  "business  man"  and  deals  with  some  of  the  recognized 
topics  of  advertising,  such  as  media,  circulation,  appeal, 
etc. 

Calkins,  Ernest  Elmo. 

THE  BUSINESS  OP  ADVERTISING.      D.  ApplctOU  &  Co.,  NcW  Yorhy 

1915,  pp.  363,  $2.00.  A  revision  which  has  amounted  to 
a  complete  rewriting  of  his  earlier  work,  "Modern  Adver- 
tising." Intended  to  "show  briefly  the  work  of  those  who 
deal  in  advertising." 

Casson,  Herbert  Newton. 

ads  and  sales  '.  a  study  of  advertising  and  selling  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  new  principles  of  scientific  manage- 
MENT. A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1911,  pp.  167,  $2.00. 
A  series  of  a  dozen  popular  talks  on  advertising  and  sales- 
manship with  practical  illustrations. 

Castarede,  L.  de. 

MONEY-MAKING  BY  AD-WRITING.  NeufYian  and  Castarede, 
London,  1905,  pp.  367,  10s.,  6d.  This  book  is  intended  for 
beginners  in  advertising  and  contains  the  following  chap- 
ters: Composition  and  Style  in  Writing  Advertisements; 
Technical  Proof  and  Press  Corrections ;  Block  Type ;  Illus- 
trations; Small  Advertisements;  Newspaper  Advertising; 
Magazine  Advertisfng;  Circularising;  Eatio  of  Advertising 
to  Eeturns;  Poster  Advertising;  How  to  "Key"  Advertise- 
ments; The  Psychology  of  Advertising;  also  several  other 
chapters  of  less  importance.  The  author  makes  much  use 
of  the  American  contributions  to  the  literature  of  advertis- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  413 

ing.  This  is  especially  apparent  in  the  chapter  on  "The 
Psychology  of  Advertising"  which  consists  almost  entirely 
of  quotations  from  "The  Theory  of  Advertising,"  by  Scott, 
though  no  mention  of  this  fact  is  made  by  the  author. 

Chapman,  Clowry. 

THE  LAW  of  advertising  AND  SALES.  PuhUslied  hy  the 
author,  Denver,  1908,  2  volumes,  $10.00. 

Chasnoff,  J.  E. 

SELLING  NEWSPAPER  SPACE :  HOW  TO  DEVELOP  LOCAL  ADVERTISING. 

The  Ronald  Press  Co.,  New  York,  1913,  pp.  133,  $1.50.  A 
half-dozen  chapters  on  the  value  and  efficiency  of  news- 
paper advertising. 

Cherrington,  Paul  Terry. 

advertising  as  a  business  force!  a  compilation  of  experi- 
ENCE RECORDS.  Douhledap,  Page  d  Co.,  Garden  City,  N.Y., 
1913,  pp.  569,  $2.00.  A  thoroughgoing  study  of  the  practical 
problems  of  advertising,  such  as  distribution,  media,  adver- 
tising for  the  retail  and  wholesale  trades,  premium  sys- 
tems, trademarks,  disposals  of  costs,  etc.  Prepared  as  a 
text  for  the  Educational  Committee  of  the  Associated 
Advertising  Clubs  of  America. 

Cherrington,  Paul  Terry. 

THE  ADVERTISING  BOOK.  Douhlcday,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden 
City,  N.Y.,  1916,  pp.  604,  $2.00.  Prepared,  like  his  earlier 
work,  for  the  A.  A.  C.  of  W.  Its  chief  purpose,  the  author 
states,  is  "to  put  into  form  for  convenient  reference  some  of 
the  available  records  of  recent  progress  in  advertising 
methods."    Highly  instructive   and   entertaining  reading. 

Clifford,  William  George. 

building  your  business  by  mail:  a  compilation  of  success- 
ful direct  advertising  campaigns  drawn  from  the  experi- 
ence records  of  361  firms  representing  every  line  op  busi- 
NESS. Business  Research  Puhlicity  Co.,  Chicago,  1914,  pp. 
443,  $2.00.  A  plea  for  direct  advertising  and  its  specific 
application  to  many  kinds  of  merchandising. 


414       THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

Cody,  Sherwix. 

how  to  do  business  by  letter  and  advertising*.  a  practical 
and  scientific  method  of  handling  customers  by  written 
SALESMANSHIP.  Cofistahle  &  Co.,  London,  1911,  pp.  288, 
$1.50.  A  collection  and  explanation  of  sample  letters  to 
be  used  in  general  business  procedure,  sales  and  advertis- 
ing campaigns. 

Cody,  S  her  win. 

how  to  deal  with  human  nature  in  business '.  a  practical 
book  on  doing  business  by  correspondence,  advertising,  and 
SALESMANSHIP.  Funk  &  Wagncills  Co.,  New  York,  1915,  pp. 
488,  $2.00.  An  amplification  of  Ms  earlier  work,  "How  to 
do  Business  by  Letter  and  Advertising."  Contains  addi- 
tional chapters  on  tlie  principles  of  salesmanship. 

Coleman,  Edgar  Werner. 

ADVERTISING  DEVELOPMENT.  PuhUsked  by  tlw  author,  Mil- 
waukee, 1909,  pp.  449'  An  account  of  the  progressive 
development  of  advertising.     Interestingly  written. 

Collins,  James  H. 

HUMAN  NATURE  IN  SELLING  GOODS.  Henry  Altemus  Co., 
Philadelphia,  1909,  pp.  93,  $0.50  net. 

CoRBiN,  William  A. 

SALESMANSHIP    DEPORTMENT    AND    SYSTEM.       G.     W.    JaCOhS    <& 

Co.,  Philadelphia,  1907,  pp.  380,  $1.00. 

Curtis  Publishing  Company. 

SELLING  FORCES.  The  Curtis  Publishing  Co.,  Philadelphia, 
1913,  pp.  288.  Deals  with  the  history  of  advertising,  and 
with  its  present  efficiency,  machinery,  and  methods,  and 
the  consumer  toward  whom  it  is  directed. 

Debower,  Herbert  Francis. 

ADVERTISING  PRINCIPLES.  Alexander  Hamilton  Institute, 
New  York,  1917,  pp.  330.  One  of  a  series  of  texts  prepared 
for  the  Alexander  Hamilton  Institute.    Treats  of  the  pur- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  415 

pose  of  advertising;  the  methods  of  getting  the  advertise- 
ment seen,  read,  understood,  and  acted  upon;  and  the 
various  instruments  employed,  such  as  trademarks,  slogans, 
catalogs,  etc. 

DeLAND,  LORIN  F. 

IMAGINATION  IN  BUSINESS.  Harper  and  Brothers,  New  York, 
1909,  pp.  108,  $0.50. 

Deuch,  Ernest  Alfred. 

ADVERTISING  BY  MOTION  PICTURES.  The  Standard  Publishing 
Co.,  Cincinnati,  1916,  pp.  255,  $1.00.  A  study  of  the  com- 
paratively new  method  of  motion-picture  advertising.  Takes 
up  the  respective  values  of  slides  and  films  and  their  appli- 
cation to  different  types  of  advertising; 

DeWeese,  Trauman  A. 

THE  principles  OF  PRACTICAL  PUBLICITY.  The  Matthews- 
Northrup  Works,  Buffalo,  1906,  pp.  2JfJf.  A  treatise  on  the 
art  of  advertising.  Sold  only  as  a  part  of  Business  Man's 
Library  System  Co.,  Chicago.  The  following  are  the  chap- 
ter titles:  Modern  Commercial  Publicity;  What  is  Adver- 
tising? Mediums  Employed  by  General  and  Direct  Pub- 
licity; What  is  Good  Advertising  Copy?  The  Bull's-eye 
Method  in  Advertising;  "Keason-Why  Copy";  The  Maga- 
zine and  the  Newspaper;  Kelative  Values  of  Magazine 
Pages;  Mail-Order  Advertising;  Follow-up  Systems;  The 
Booklet  in  Mail-Order  Advertising;  "Keying"  Mail-Order 
Advertisements;  Bank  Advertising;  Street  Car  Advertis- 
ing; Railway  and  Steamship  Advertising;  Outdoor  Adver- 
tising; Planning  an  Advertising  Campaign;  The  Advertis- 
ing Agency.  This  is  one  of  the  best  books  on  the  subject 
of  advertising. 

Dunn,  Arthur., 

KEEPING  A  DOLLAR  AT  WORK.  The  New  York  Evening  Post, 
New  York,  1915,  pp.  176,  $1.00.  Fifty  short  talks  devoted 
to  the  importance  of  the  newspaper  in  successful  adver- 
tising and  merchandising. 


416       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISI:NG 

Dunn,  Arthur. 

SCIENTIFIC  SELLING  AND  ADVERTISING.  Industrial  Publishing 
Co.f  New  York,  1919,  pp.  119.  Short  exposition  of  some  oft- 
repeated  axioms  of  advertising. 

Edgar,  A.  E. 

HOW  TO  ADVERTISE  A  RETAIL  STORE.  The  OuUng  Press, 
Deposit,  N.Y.,  1908,  pp.  50 Jf,  $3.50. 

Eldridge,  Harold  Francis. 

MAKING  ADVERTISING  PAY.  The  State,  Columbus,  S.C.,  1918, 
pp.  231.  Deals  with  the  economic  and  social  side  of  adver- 
tising, with  the  application  of  psychological  principles,  and 
details  specific  methods  adapted  to  retail  and  wholesale 
merchandising. 

Farrar,  Gilbert  Powerly. 

THE  TYPOGRAPHY  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS  THAT  PAY.      D.  AppletOH 

d  Co.,  New  York,  1918,  pp.  282,  $2.25.  A  classification  of 
type  faces  and  their  application  to  certain  general  styles 
of  advertising,  e.g.,  the  hand-lettered,  the  poster,  the  depart- 
ment store,  etc.,  together  with  chapters  on  the  combina- 
tions of  types,  of  type  with  pictures,  borders,  margins,  etc. 
A  plea  for  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  typography 
among  advertising  men. 

Farrington,  Frank. 

RETAIL  ADVERTISING  COMPLETE.  The  Byxhee  Publishing  Co., 
Chicago,  1910,  pp.  270,  $1.00.  A  dozen  chapters,  informally 
written,  on  methods  of  retail  advertising  such  as  window- 
trimming,  media,  special  sales,  etc. 

Fowler,  Nathaniel  C. 

ABOUT  ADVERTISING  AND  PRINTING.         L.   Barta   &   Co.,  Boston, 

1880,  pp.  160,  $2.00.  This  volume  treats  of  the  same  gen- 
eral subjects  as  the  author's  encyclopedia.  This  later  book 
is,  however,  more  adequate  and  is  the  product  of  later 
years. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  417 

Out  of  print,  to  be  had  only  at  second-hand.  The  most 
pretentious  and  complete  work  on  advertising  to  date. 

Fox,  Irving  P.,  and  Forbes,  B.  A. 

ONE  THOUSAND  W^AYS  AND  SCHEMES  TO  ATTRACT  TRADE.      Spatultt 

PnUishing  Co.,  Boston,  1912,  pp.  208,  $1.00. 

French,  George. 

THE  ART  AND  SCIENCE  OF  ADVERTISING.  Sherman,  FreucJi  & 
Co.,  Boston,  1909,  pp.  291,  $2.00  net. 

French,  George. 

ADVERTISING :  THE  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  PROBLEM.      Tlw  Ronald 

Press,  New  York,  1915,  pp.  258,  $2.00.  A  well-written  book 
dealing  with  the  general  topics  of  advertising. 

French,  George. 

HOW   TO    advertise:    a    guide    to   DESIGNING,    LAYING    OUT,    AND 

COMPOSING  ADVERTISEMENTS.  DouMeday,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden 
City,  N.Y.,  1917,  pp.  279,  $2.00.  Written  for  the  A.  A.  C.  of 
W.  Shows  the  principles  adopted  from  graphic  arts, 
optics,  and  psychology  that  are  behind  effective  advertising. 
Demonstrates  the  waste  in  advertising  by  concrete  examples 
of  ads  that  have  made  or  missed  their  mark. 

Gale,  Harlow. 

ON  the  psychology  op  ADVERTISING.  PiihUshed  by  the 
author,  Minneapolis,  1900,  pp.  32,  $0.75.  The  author  of  this 
pamphlet  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  apply  experimental 
methods  to  the  subject. 

Galloway,  Lee. 

ADVERTISING  AND  CORRESPONDENCE.  Alexander  Hamilton  In- 
stitute, New  York,  1913,  pp.  606.  Written  as  a  text  for  the 
Alexander  Hamilton  Institute.  Deals  with  the  history  of 
advertising;  the  pisychological  factors  involved  in  writing 
ads ;  the  technique  of  advertising,  typography,  illustrations, 
arrangement,  etc.,  advertising  media  of  all  sorts ;  sales  and 
follow-up  letters. 


418       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Gerin,  Octave  Jacques,  et  Espixadel,  C. 

la  publicite  suggestive,  theorie  et  technique,  avec  preface 
DE  M.  WALTER  DILL  SCOTT.  H.  Dufiod  and  E,  Pinat,  Paris, 
1911,  pp.  W.  A  thorough  exposition  of  the  subject  of  ad- 
vertising. Treats  of  its  history,  its  national  characteris- 
tics, its  value  to  the  public,  its  theoretical  laws, — sugges- 
tion, etc.;  its  practical  laws, — optic,  spacial,  etc.;  its  media; 
its  special  devices  such  as  trademark,  mail  order,  house- 
organ,  etc.;  and  its  legal  regulations. 

GOODALL,   G. 

advertising:  a  study  op  a  modern  business  power.  With 
an  Introduction  hy  Sidney  Wehh,  Constable  &  Co.,  Lon- 
don, 191Jf^  pp.  91.  A  short  treatise  on  advertising  as  an 
economic  factor. 

Hall,  Samuel  Robert. 

WRITING  AN  advertisement;  AN  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  METHODS 
AND    MENTAL    PROCESSES    THAT    PLAY    A    PART    IN    THE    WRITING 

OF  SUCCESSFUL  ADVERTISING.  Hougliton  Mifflin  Co.,  New 
York,  1915,  pp.  217,  $1.00.  A  detailed  description  of  the 
make-up  of  an  advertisement,  its  construction,  its  setting, 
and  its  effect. 

Hawkins,  George  Henry  H. 

NEWSPAPER  advertising:  BEING  A  SERIES  OF  TALKS  ON  THE 
VALUE  AND  USE  OF  THIS  GREATEST  OF  ALL  LOCAL  ADVERTISING 
MEDIUMS — THE  NEWSPAPER — WITH  REPRODUCTIONS  OF  OVER 
1,000  ACTUAL  ADVERTISEMENTS.  ALSO  INCLUDES  READY-MADE 
ADVERTISEMENTS,  HEADINGS,  AND  CATCH  PHRASES  FOR  EVERY 
LINE  OF  RETAIL  BUSINESS,  AND  58  PAGES  OF  INSERT  REPRODUC- 
TIONS OF  ACTUAL  ADVERTISEMENTS,  WITH  COMMENTS.  Adver- 
tisers' Publishing  Co.,  Chicago,  191^,  pp.  119,  $4-00. 

Henderson,  R. 

Henderson's  sign  painter.  Published  by  the  author,  New- 
ark, N.J.,  1906,  pp.  112,  $3.00.  A  compilation  of  the  very 
best  creations  from  the  very  best  artists  in  their  specialties, 
embracing  all  the  standard  alphabets;  also  all  the  modern 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  419 

and  fashionable  styles  of  the  times.  The  book  contains 
nothing  more  than  the  title  indicates.  The  price  is  ex- 
cessive. 

Hess,  Herbert  Williams. 

PRODUCTIVE  ADVERTISING.  J.  B.  Lippificott,  Philadelphia, 
1915,  pp.  358,  $2.50.  A  general  book  on  advertising.  In- 
cludes chapters  on  the  history  of  advertising;  the  part 
played  in  it  by  sense  experience,  instinct,  imagination,  at- 
tention; the  technique  of  advertising;  and  other  items  of 
general  interest. 

High  AM,  Charles  Frederick. 

SCIENTIFIC  DISTRIBUTION.  NesMt  d  Co.,  Lofidon,  1916,  pp. 
170.  A  study  of  publicity  as  an  economic  factor.  Describes 
the  matter  and  manner  of  advertising,  and  offers  sugges- 
tions as  to  its  wider  application. 

Hollixgsworth,  Harry  Levi. 

advertising  and  selling :  principles  of  appeal  and  response. 
D.  Appleton  d  Co.,  New  York,  1913,  pp.  310,  $2.00.  An 
investigation  of  the  mental  processes  involved  in  the  re- 
sponse to  the  advertising  appeal  as  demonstrated  by  actual 
advertisements,  and  an  attempt  to  anticipate  by  laboratory 
methods  the  effectiveness  of  new  ones.  A  reliable  and 
scientific  study.  Contains  topical  references  for  further 
study. 

HoYT,  Charles  Wilson. 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  A  MARKETING  PLAN.  Aft  addrcss  deliv- 
ered before  the  Department  of  Business  Administration  of 
Yale  University,  1917,  pp.  22.  Outlines  a  complete  working 
plan  for  the  marketing  of  a  product  by  advertising.  Con- 
cise and  lucid. 

International  Correspondence  Schools.. 

RETAIL  ADVERTISING.  International  Textbook  Co.,  Scranton, 
Pa.,  1905,  2  volumes,  each  of  over  JfOO  pages,  $4.00  per  vol- 
ume, hut  not  to  he  had  except  in  sets  of  5  volumes.    The 


420       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

following  are  the  chapter  heads:  Copy  and  Proof;  Supple- 
mentary Advertising;  Retail  Advertising  Management; 
Conducting  an  Advertising  Office;  Department  Store  Ad- 
vertising; Advertisement  Illustration;  Advertisement  Con- 
struction; Principles  of  Display;  Illustrations  in  News- 
paper Advertisements;  Engraving  Process;  Advertise- 
ments for  Various  Businesses;  Cyclopedia  of  Retail  Ad- 
vertisements and  Selling  Points;  Printing-House  Methods; 
Exhibit  of  Advertising  Types  and  Borders.  Each  chapter 
is  written  by  an  expert.  Chapters  are  being  added  from 
time  to  time  and  the  whole  "course"  bids  fair  to  be  the 
best  encyclopedia  of  advertising. 

International  Correspondence  Schools. 

LETTERING  AND  SIGN  PAINTING.  International  Textbook  Co., 
Bcranton,  Pa.,  1902,  pp.  237,  $4.00,  but  to  be  had  only  in 
connection  with  If  other  volumes  {as  above). 

International  Correspondence  Schools. 

SHOW-CARD  writing.  International  Textbook  Co.,  Scranton, 
Pa.,  1903,  pp.  172;  in  addition  many  pages  of  illustrations, 
$Jf.OO,  but  to  be  had  only  in  connection  with  Jf  other  vol- 
umes {as  above). 

International  Correspondence  Schools. 

FORM  letters  AND  FOLLOW-UP  SYSTEMS,  CATALOGS,  BOOKLETS, 
AND  FOLDERS,  MANAGEMENT  OF  GENERAL  CAMPAIGNS,  MISCEL- 
LANEOUS   DETAILS    OF    MANAGEMENT,    THE    ADVERTISING    AGENCY, 

HOW  TO  ENTER  THE  PRACTICAL  FIELD.  International  Textbook 
Co.,  Scranton,  Pa.,  1909,  pp.  Jf85. 

International  Correspondence  Schools. 

engraving  and  printing  methods,  advertisement  illustra- 
TION,    technical    and     trade     PAPER    ADVERTISING,     STREET-CAR 

ADVERTISING,  OUTDOOR  ADVERTISING,  HOUSE  PUBLICATIONS.  In- 
ternational Textbook  Co.,  Scranton,  Pa.,  1909,  pp.  4S2. 

International  Correspondence  Schools. 

advertisement  display:  mediums:  retail  management:  de- 
PARTMENT store  MANAGEMENT.  International  Textbook  Co., 
Scranton,  Pa. 


BIBLIOGKAPHY  421 

International  Correspondence  Schools. 

advertising:  copy  for  advertisements:  correct  and  faulty 
diction:  punctuation  and  editing:  type  and  type  measure- 
ments: layouts:  proofreading.  International  TexthooTc 
Co.,  Scranton,  Pa, 

International  Correspondence  Schools. 

advertiser's  pocket  book.  International  Textbook  Co., 
Scranton,  Pa.,  1911,  pp.  JflS.  A  book  of  reference  dealing 
with  plans,  copy,  typography,  illustration,  media,  man- 
agement, and  other  details  of  advertising  practice. 

Jones,  Christopher. 

HANDBOOK  OF  ADVERTISING.  A  MANUAL  FOR  THOSE  WHO  WISH 
TO   become   ACQUAINTED    WfTH    THE    PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICES 

OF  ADVERTISING.  Pitman  d  Son,  New  York,  1912,  pp.  133. 
Intended  for  the  use  of  manufacturers  planning  an  adver- 
tising campaign.  Deals  with  the  various  practices  of 
advertising,  outdoor,  press,  etc. 

Kastor,  E. 

ADVERTISING.  La  Salle  Extension  University,  Chicago,  1918, 
pp.  317.  Written  for  the  business  man  and  contains  prac- 
tical information  on  such  topics  as  appeal,  copy,  layout, 
media,  advertising  agencies,  etc. 

Kaufman,  Herbert. 

THE  CLOCK  that  HAD  NO  HANDS.  Gcorge  H.  Doran  Co.,  New 
York,  1912,  pp.  llJf.  Twenty  short  popular  talks  on  the 
value  of  advertising. 

Lenington,  Norman  G. 

SEVEN  principles  OF  SUCCESSFUL  ADVERTISING.  Commercial 
Science  System,  Scranton,  Pa.,  1908,  pp.  Ul,  $1.00. 

Lewis,  Barnard  Joseph. 

how  to  make  type  talk:  the  relation  of  typography  to 

VOICE  modulation;  basic  PRINCIPLES  AS  DEVELOPED  AND  PROVEN 

IN  ACTUAL  PRACTICE.     The  Stctson  Press,  Boston,  1914,  pp. 


422       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

SI,  $1.00.  A  short  paper  on  the  relation  of  different  styles 
of  type,  spacing,  etc.,  to  the  thought  they  are  intended  to 
convey.    Illustrated  by  pages  of  sample  type. 

Lewis,  E.  St.  Elmo. 

FiNAxeiAL  ADVERTISING.  Lcvcy  Brothcrs  &  Co.,  Indianapolis, 
1908,  pp.  992,  $5.00. 

Lewis,  Henry  Harrison,  and  Duff,  Orva  S. 

HOW  fortunes  are  made  in  advertising.  Publicity  Pub- 
lifihing  Co.,  Chicago,  1908,  pp.  2^2,  $1.25. 

LlESENBERG,    CaRL. 

personliohe,  geschaftliche,  politische  reklame  :  LEHRBUCH 

DER    REKLAMEKUNST,    DEREN    WESEN,    BEDEUTUNG    und    konse- 

QUENZEN.  PfalziscJie  Verlagsanstaldf,  Neustadt  a.d.  Haardt, 
1912,  pp.  288.  A  general  study  dealing  with  the  theory  of 
advertising,  its  appeal,  its  value,  and  the  relative  merits 
of  its  various  forms. 

Lindgren,  Charles. 

THE    new    salesmanship   AND    HOW   TO   DO   BUSINESS   BY    MAIL. 

Laird  d  Lee,  Chicago,  1909,  pp.  190,  $1.50. 

Macdonald,  J.  Angus. 

SUCCESSFUL  advertising:  how  to  accomplish  IT.  The  Lin- 
coln Publishing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  191)2,  pp.  JfOO,  $2.00.  The 
book  contains  the  following  five  chapters:  Advertisement 
Building;  Eetail  Advertising  all  the  Year  Around;  Special 
Features  in  Eetail  Advertising;  Mail  Order  Advertising; 
Miscellaneous  Advertising.  The  book  contains  much  ad- 
vice, numerous  illustrations  of  good  ways  of  saying  things, 
and  is  altogether  a  helpful  book  for  the  beginner  in  adver- 
tising. 

Mahin,  John  Lee. 

LECTURES  ON  ADVERTisii^G.  MaMn  Advertising  Co.,  Chicago, 
1907,  pp.  76,  $1.00. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  423 

Mahin,  John  Lee. 

mahin's  advertising  data  book.  Mahin  Advertising  Co., 
Chicago,  1908,  pp,  556,  $2.00. 

Mahin,  John  Lee. 

advertising:  selling  the  consumer.  Douhleday,  Page  & 
Co.,  Garden  City,  N.Y.,  1919,  pp.  298,  $2.00.  Written  for 
the  A.  A.  C.  of  W.  Describes  the  commercial  status  of  ad- 
vertising; its  value;  its  tools;  its  media;  the  method  of 
building  and  testing  an  advertisement;  and  takes  up  such 
specific  topics  as  trademarks,  mail  order  business,  etc. 
Contains  chapter  references  for  supplementary  reading. 

Martin,  Mac. 

planning  an  advertising  campaign  for  a  manufacturer. 
Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  1914,  pp.  99.  Maps 
out  an  advertising  campaign  by  a  thoroughgoing  analysis 
of  the  product,  its  markets,  channels  of  distribution,  media, 
and  the  construction  of  its  ads. 

Martin,  Mac. 

advertising  campaigns.  Alexander  Hamilton  Institute, 
New  York,  1917,  pp.  338.  Written  as  a  text-book  for  the 
Alexander  Hamilton  Institute.  Starts  a  campaign  from 
the  beginning  with  an  analysis  of  the  demand  for  the 
product,  competition  to  be  encountered,  costs,  methods  of 
giving  identity  to  the  product,  advertising  technique,  medi- 
ums and  ways  of  estimating  their  value,  testing  success  by 
sampling  and  other  means. 

Mataja,  Victor. 

die  reklame.  fine  untersuchung  "user  ankundigungswesen 
UND  werbetatigkeit  im  geschaftsleben.  Duncker  d  Hum- 
hlot,  Leipzig,  1910,  pp.  489.  An  exhaustive  study  treating 
of  the  laws  and  principles  of  advertising,  media,  technique, 
and  the  legal  regulations  of  advertising. 

McNaughlan,  Flint. 

MORE  business  THROUGH  POSTCARDS :  AN  EXHAUSTIVE  ANALYSIS 
OF   THE   POSSIBILITIES   FOR   INTENSIVELY   INCREASING   PROFITABLE 


424      THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISING 

SALES  THROUGH  RETURN  POSTCARDS.  DRAWN  FROM  THE  EXPERI- 
ENCES AND  RECORDS  OF  OVER  100  FIRMS  REPRESENTING  PRACTI- 
CALLY EVERY  LINE  OF  BUSINESS.  Selling  Aid,  Chicago,  1917, 
pp.  39. 

Minneapolis  Journal. 

attainable  ideals  in  newspaper  advertising.    1920. 

Moran,  Clarence. 

THE  BUSINESS  OF  ADVERTISING.  Mcthucn  &  Co.,  Londoti,  1905, 
pp.  191,  2s.  6d.  net.  The  book  contains  the  following  chap- 
ters: Advertising  and  its  Utility;  History  of  Advertising; 
Manual  of  Advertising;  Advertising  in  the  Press;  Adver- 
tising by  Circular;  The  Pictorial  Poster  (other  chapters 
and  appendices  are  purely  local  in  interest). 

Opdycke,  John  Baker. 

news,  ads  and  sales:  the  use  of  english  for  commercial 
PURPOSES.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1914,  pp.  193.  A 
study  of  the  ncAvspaper  as  an  advertising  medium.  A  com- 
parison of  it  with  other  forms  of  advertising. 

Opdycke,  John  Baker. 

ADVERTISING  AND  SELLING  PRACTICE.  A.  W.  Shaw  Co.,  Chi- 
cago, 1918,  pp.  230,  $2.65.  A  clear  exposition  of  the  prin- 
ciples, practices,  and  methods  of  advertising  and  selling. 
Contains  an  extensive  bibliography. 

OsBORN,  Alexander  Faickney. 

BRASS  tacks  of  ADVERTISING,  AN  UN  MYSTERIOUS  ANALYSIS  OP 
THE    PRACTICAL   PHASES    OF    THE    KIND    OF    ADVERTISING    WHICH 

ANALYZES.  Hausauer-Jones  Printing  Co.,  Buffalo,  1915,  pp. 
135,  $2.00.  Popular  chapters  on  such  topics  as :  How  Best 
to  Attract  the  Eye;  How  to  Advertise  the  Half -Wanted 
Product,  etc. 

Parsons,  Frank  Alvah. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    ADVERTISING    ARRANGEMENT.      Prang    Co.,    NcW 

York,  1913.  The  application  to  advertising  of  accepted 
principles  of  form  and  color.    The  necessity  of  considering 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  425 

such  things  as  color,  color-combination,  shape,  balance, 
tendency  to  eye  movement,  etc. 

Powell,  George  Henry. 

Powell's  practical  advertiser.  Published  by  the  author, 
New  York,  1905,  pp.  229,  $5.00.  A  practical  work  for  ad- 
vertisement writers  and  business  men,  with  instructions  on 
planning,  preparing,  placing,  and  managing  modern  pub- 
licity. With  cyclopedia  of  over  one  thousand  useful  adver- 
tisements. 

Pratt,  William  Knight. 

the  advertising  manual.    Daniel  Stern,  Chicago,  1909,  pp., 

278,  $8.50. 

Kamsay,  E.  E. 

effective  house  organs.    Applet  on.  New  York,  1920,  $3.50. 

EiCHARDs,  William  Hurst. 

HOW.  TO  make  money  BY  ADVERTISING.  PuhUshed  by  the 
author,  Baltimore,  1913,  pp.  96,  $1.00.  Short  book  on  the 
value  of  advertising. 

Richards,  William  Hurst. 

POWER  in  ADVERTISING.  Empire  Printing  Co.,  Kansas  City, 
Mo.,  1915,  pp.  27 Ji,  $2.00.  A  second  book  of  the  same  gen- 
eral style  as  the  first  by  this  author. 

Richardson,  A.  O. 

THE  POWER  OF  ADVERTISING.  Lambert  Publishing  Co.,  New 
York,  1913,  pp.  300.  An  interesting  work  on  the  social  and 
economic  value  of  advertising  as  well  as  its  principles  and 
technique. 

Rogers,  Edward  S. 

GOOD  WILL,  trade-marks   AND   UNFAIR  TRADING.      A.    W.   8haW 

Co.,  Chicago,  1914,  pp.  288,  $3.25.  About  ten  chapters  are 
devoted  to  a  study  of  the  trademark  as  an  advertising 
device  and  the  methods  of  safeguarding  same. 


426       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

EOGERS,   W.    S. 

A  BOOK  OF  THE  POSTER.  Greening  d  Co,,  London,  1901,  pp. 
158,  7s.  6d.  Illustrated  with  examples  of  the  work  of  the 
principal  poster  artists  of  the  world. 

RowELL,  George  Presbury. 

FORTY  YEARS  AN  ADVERTisixG  AGEXT,  1865-1905.  Printers'  Ink 
PuUishing  Co.,  New  York,  1906,  517  pp.,  $2.00.  The  book 
contains  no  table  of  contents,  but  is  subdivided  into  fifty- 
two  "papers";  the  contents  of  the  book  are  mainly  remi- 
niscence, but  the  style  of  the  author  is  so  pleasing  that  the 
papers  will  be  found  interesting  even  by  those  who  have 
never  known  the  author  personally. 

Ruben,  Paul. 

die  reklame.  ihre  kunst  und  wissenschaft.  herausge- 
^  gebex  von  paul  ruben,  unter  mitarbeit  bekannter  fach- 
LEUTE,  JURISTEN  UND  KUNSTLER.  Verlag  fUr  Sozialpolitik, 
volumes  1  and  2,  1913-1^.  A  symposium  in  two  large  vol- 
umes of  articles  written  by  a  dozen  or  more  authors,  on 
such  topics  as:  The  Makeup  and  Details  of  Advertising; 
American  and  German  Advertising;  Advertising  in  the 
Cigarette  Industry;  What  we  Accomplished  in  America 
through  Advertising;  Science  in  Advertising,  etc. 

Rubin,  Manning  J. 

MAKING  ADVERTISEMENTS  PAY.  Hannis,  Jordan  Co.,  New 
York,  1913,  pp.  89.  .Short  articles  on  the  value  and  some 
of  the  devices  of  advertising. 

Russell,  T.  H.  . 

COMMERCIAL  ADVERTISING.     Putnam,  New  York,  1919.    $2.50. 

Sammons,  Wheeler. 

MAKING  more  OUT  OF  ADVERTISING.  A.  W.  Skaw  Co.,  GMcago, 
1919,  pp.  285,  $3.25.  Describes  the  practical  problems  and 
details  of  advertising  and  how  to  handle  them.  Applies 
especially  to  the  business  of  retail  advertising. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  427 

Sampson,  Edith. 

ADVERTISE.  D.  C.  Heath  d  Co.,  Boston,  1918,  pp.  240.  In- 
teresting little  book  dealing  with  what  ihe  author  terms 
the  ten  commandments  of  advertising. 

Sampson,  Henry. 

a  history  of  advertising  from  the  earliest  times.  chatto 
d  Windus,  London,  187^,  pp-  616,  7s.  6d.  Illustrated  by 
anecdotes,  curious  specimens  and  biographical  notes.  The 
book  is  exactly  what  the  title  asserts  and  has  supplied 
many  an  interesting  story  or  illustration  for  speakers  be- 
fore advertising  clubs. 

Sawyer,  Samuel. 

SECRETS    OF    THE    MAIL-ORDER    TRADE.      SaWt/eV    PuhUshiug    Co., 

New  York,  1900,  pp.  180,  $1.00.  The  book  is  confined  to 
the  subject  named  in  the  title  and  is  rather  well  written 
and  instructive.  • 

Scott,  Walter  Dill. 

THEORY  of  advertising.  Small,  Maynard  &  Co.,  Boston, 
1903,  pp.  2JtO,  $2.00,  net.  A  Simple  Exposition^  of  the  Prin- 
ciples of  Psychology  in  Their  Kelation  to  Advertising. 
This  book  is  the  first  volume  in  which  psychological  prin- 
ciples are  thus  applied,  and  hence  the  book  may  be  said 
to  have  created  a  new  era  in  the  science  of  advertising. 
The  book  contains  the  following  chapters:  The  Theory  of 
Advertising;  Attention;  Association  of  Ideas;  Suggestion; 
The  Direct  Command;  The  Psychological  Value  of  the 
Eeturn  Coupon;  Psychological  Experiment;  Perception; 
Illusions  of  Perception;  Illusions  of  Apperception;  Per- 
sonal Differences  in  Mental  Imagery;  Practical  Applica- 
tion of  Mental  Imagery;  Conclusion. 

Shaw,  A.  W.,  Company. 

HOW  TO  WRITE  ADVERTISEMENTS  THAT  SELL.  HOW  TO  PLAN 
every  step  in  your  campaign — USING  SALES  POINTS,  SCHEMES, 
AND  INDUCEMENTS.  HOW  TO  WRITE  AND  LAY  OUT  COPY — CHOOS- 
ING   PROSPECT    LISTS    AND    MEDIUMS — TESTS    AND    RECORDS    THAT 


428       THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

INCREASE   RETURNS.       HOW   146    SHREWD    ADVERTISERS    PLAN   AND 

PLACE  THEIR  COPY.    A.  W.  SJiaw  Co.,  CMcago,  1912,  pp.  128. 
Shaw,  A.  W.,  Company. 

ATTRACTING   AND   HOLDING  CUSTOMERS.      A.   W.   SJiaW   Co.,   Ghl- 

cago,  1919.    $3.00. 

Shaw,  A.  W.,  Company. 

MORE  SALES  THROUGH  ADVERTISING.  A.  W.  Shaw  Co.,  Chi- 
cago, 1920.    $3.50. 

Sherbow,  Benj. 

MAKING  TYPE  WORK.  Ceutury  Co.,  New  York,  1916,  pp.  129, 
$1.25.  A  study  of  the  part  played  by  different  forms  of 
type  in  commanding  attention,  shifting  the  emphasis  of 
attention,  overcoming  monotony,  etc.  Discusses  also  the 
matter  of  sub-heads,  side-heads,  margins,  etc. 

Shryer,*W.  a. 

ANALYTICAL  ADVERTISING.  Busifiess  Service  Corporation, 
Detroit,  1912,  pp.  228.  A  discussion  of  psychology  as  it 
applies  to  advertising.  Treats  of  such  topics  as  sensation, 
attention,  suggestion,  reason,  interest,  habit,  imagination. 

Shryer,  W.  a. 

sixteen  hundred  business  books.  h.  w.  whsou  &  co., 
New  York,  1917.  A  bibliography,  prepared  by  the  Newark 
(N.J.)  Free  Public  Library  for  the  A.  A.  C.  of  W.  The 
books  are  listed  according  to  author,  title,  and  subject. 

Spiers,  Ernest  A. 

THE  ART  OF  PUBLICITY  AND  ITS  APPLICATION  TO  BUSINESS.       T.  F. 

Unwin,  London,  1910,  pp.  166.  General  discussion  of  tile 
subject  of  advertising  covering  such  topics  as:  How  to 
Attract  and  Eivet  Attention;  Cost;  Media;  Follow-up 
Letters;  and  Advertisement  Construction. 

Starch,  Daniel. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    advertising:    A    SYSTEMATIC    SYLLABUS    OF    THE 

fundamental  principles   of  advertising.     The   University 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  429 

Co-operative  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.,  1910,  pp.  67,  $1.00.  A 
working  outline  of  the  factors  involved  in  successful  adver- 
tising, with  topical  references  and  suggestions  for  further 
study.     Thorough  and  concise. 

Starch,  Daniel. 

advertising  :  its  principles,  practice,  and  technique.  scott, 
Foresman  d  Co.,  Chicago,  191Jf,  pp.  281,  $1.25.  The  author 
states  this  is  an  attempt  "to  combine  the  practical  and 
theoretical  aspects  of  the  subject  in  such  a  way  that  the 
practical  experiences  of  business  houses,  which  are  quoted 
at  length,  may  illustrate  the  underlying  principles,  and 
that  the  discussion  of  principles  may  illuminate  the  prac- 
tical results  of  business."  A  scientific  and  reliable  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.    One  of  the  best  books  on  the  market. 

Stead,  William. 

THE  ART  OF  ADVERTISING.  T.  B.  Brownc,  Londofi,  1899,  pp. 
151,  3s.  6d.  This  is  one  of  the  best  foreign  books,  but  is 
not  up  to  the  American  standard. 

Strong,  Edward  Kellogg,  Jr. 

THE    RELATIVE     MERITS     OF    ADVERTISEMENTS,    A    PSYCHOLOGICAL 

AND  STATISTICAL  STUDY.  The  Scieuce  Press,  New  York, 
1911,  pp.  81.  A  careful  study  by  laboratory  methods  of  the 
relative  values  of  certain  well-known  advertisements. 

Taylor,  Henry  C. 

what  an  advertiser  should  know:  a  handbook  for  every 
ONE  WHO  ADVERTISES.  Browfie  d  Howcll,  Chicago,  1914,  PP- 
95,  $0.75.  A  short  book  on  the  practical  problems  of  ad- 
vertising. 

Thayer,  John  Adams. 

ASTIR.  Small,  Maynard  d  Co.,  Boston;  1910,  pp.  302,  $1.20 
net. 

Thompson,  J.  Walter. 

THE  THOMPSON  BLUE  BOOK  ON  ADVERTISING.  /.  Walter  Thomp- 
son d  Co.,  New  York,  1906,  pp.  238.    A  register  of  represen- 


430       THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

tative  organs  and  liow  to  use  tliem.  The  book  is  in  the 
main  a  register  of  newspapers  and  other  publications  with 
a  statement  of  the  supposed  circulation  of  each  and  the  ad- 
vertising rate.  The  book  is  published  in  the  interests  of 
an  advertising  agency  and  presents  numerous  illustrations 
of  the  work  of  the  agency.  Incidentally  much  informa- 
tion concerning  advertising  is  presented. 

Tipper,  Harry,  Hollingworth,  H.  L.,  Hotchkiss,  G.  B.,  and 
Parsons,  F.  A. 

ADVERTISING,  ITS  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICES.       The  Rofiald  PVCSS, 

New  York,  1915,  pp.  575,  $6.00.  One  of  the  most  complete 
works  on  the  subject  of  advertising.  Considers  the  subject 
under  the  four  headings :  Economic  Factors  in  Advertising ; 
Psychological  Factors  in  Advertising;  Practical  Factors 
in  Advertising;  and  The  Technical  Details  of  Advertising. 

Tipper,  Harry;  Hollingworth,  Harry  L.;  Hotchkiss,  George 
Burton;  Parsons,  Frank  Alvah. 
the  principles  of  advertising:  a  text-book.  The  Ronald 
Press  Company,  Neiv  York,  1920,  pp.  376,  $3.50.  This  is  a 
so-called  "text  edition,"  intended  for  school  use  and  might 
be  thought  of  as  a  later  edition  of  "Advertising:  Its  Prin- 
ciples and  Practices." 

Tregurtha,  C,  and  Frings,  J,  W. 

the  craft  of  silent  salesmanship:  a  guide  to  advertise- 
ment construction.  Pitman  &  Son,  London,  1917,  pp.  97. 
A  thorough  study  of  the  process  of  preparing  an  ad  for  the 
press.  Takes  up  such  details  as  the  "command"  versus  the 
"question"  heading,  sub-headings,  admonition,  signature, 
etc. 

United  States  Depaijtment  of  Commerce,  Bureau  op  Foreign 
AND  Domestic  Commerce. 

foreign  publications  for  advertising  AMERICAN  GOODS,  ADVER- 
TISING RATES,  circulation,  SUBSCRIPTION  PRICE,  ETC.  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington.    A  list  of  foreign  news 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  431 

and  trades  papers  that  may  be  advantageously  used  for 
advertising  American  goods.  Prepared  from  consular 
reports. 

Wagonseller,  G.  W. 

THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  ADVERTISING.  Wagofiseller  Publish- 
ing House,  Middlehiiry,  Pa.,  Jfth  edition,  1919,  pp,  6Jf,  $1.00. 

Wilson,  George  Frederick. 

THE  house-organ — HOW  TO  MAKE  IT  PRODUCE  RESULTS.  Wash- 
ington Park  Publishing  Co.,  Milwaukee,  1915,  pp.  199,  $2.00. 
A  study  of  the  house-organ  as  a  business  asset.  Gives 
technical  details  of  its  make-up  and  shows  where  it  is  most 
effective. 

WooLLEY,  Edward  Mott. 

THE  ART  OF  SELLING  GOODS.  Thc  American  Business  Man, 
Chicago,  1907,  pp.  167, 


THE  FOLLOWING  MAGAZINES  ARE  DEVOTED  EN- 
TIRELY OR  IN  PART  TO  THE  SUBJECT  OF  ADVER- 
TISING. 

Advertising  Age  and  Mail  Order  Journal,  Chicago,  monthly. 
Advertising  Club  News,  New  York,  monthly. 
Advertising  and  Selling,  New  York,  monthly. 
Advertising  World,  Columbus,  Ohio,  monthly. 
Associated  Advertising,  New  York,  monthly. 
Bulletin  (American  Association  of  Newspaper  Managers),  Chi- 
cago, monthly. 
Business  Digest  and  Investment  Weekly,  New  York,  weekly. 
Class  (advertising  in  class  publications),  Chicago,  monthly. 
Editor  and  Publisher,  New  York,  weekly. 
Exclusive  Distributor,  Columbus,  Ohio,  monthly. 
Fourth  Estate,  New  York,  weekly. 
Independent  Advertising,  New  York,  monthly. 
Mailbag,  Cleveland,  monthly. 
Mail  Order  News,  Newburgh,  N.Y.,  monthly. 
Marketing  and  Business  Advertising,  Toronto,  monthly. 


432      THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF  ADVERTISING 

Newspaperdom,  New  York,  semi-montMy. 

Novelty  News,  Chicago,  monthly. 

100%,  Chicago,  monthly. 

Postage  (magazine  of  direct  advertising),  Haverhill,  Mass., 
monthly. 

Poster,  Chicago,  monthly. 

Printers^  Ink,  New  York,  weekly. 

Publishers'  Weekly,  New  York,  weekly. 

Signs  of  the  Times,  Cincinnati,  monthly. 

Up-to-Date  Distributer  (house-to-house  advertising),  Colum- 
bus, Ohio,  monthly. 


THE  FOLLOWING  IS  A  LIST  OF  THE  BOOKS  ON 
PSYCHOLOGY  WHICH  ARE  MOST  HELPFUL  TO 
BUSINESS    MEN. 

Angell,  James  R. 

PSYCHOLOGY.  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  Neiv  York,  1908,  pp.  JflO. 
$1.50.    Modern,  scientific,  and  practical. 

Angell,  James  R. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  PSYCHOLOGY.  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New 
York,  1918,  pp.  281,  $1.36. 

BALDw^N,  James  Mark. 

THE  STORY  OF  THE  MIND.  D.  Applcton  &  Co.,  New  York, 
1901,  pp.  232,  small,  $0.35.  An  excellent  little  book  and  is 
found  by  business  men  to  be  of  interest  and  value. 

Betts,  George  Herbert. 

THE    MIND    AND    ITS    EDUCATION.      D.    Appleton    &    Co.,    NetO 

York,  1906,  pp.  265,  $1.25. 

COLVIN,  S.  S.,  AND  BaGLEY,  W.  C. 

HUMAN  BEHAVIOR.  Macmtllan  Co.,  New  York,  1914,  pp-  336, 
$1.00. 

Halleck,  Reuben  Post. 

EDUCATION  OF  THE  CENTRAL  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.      Macmillan  Co., 

New  York,  pp.  285,  $1.50. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  433 

Hoffman,  Frank  Sargent. 

PSYCHOLOGY  AND  COMMON  LIFE.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New 
York,  1903,  pp.  286,  $1.80. 

HOLLINGWORTH,  HaRRY  L. 

VOCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGY.    D.  Applcton  &  Go.,  1916,  pp.  308, 

$2.50. 

HOLLINGWORTH,    H.    L.,    AND   POFFENBERGER,   A.    T. 

APPLIED  PSYCHOLOGY.    D.  AppUton  &  Go.,  1917,  pp.  337,  $2.25. 

James,  William. 

PSYCHOLOGY,  BRIEFER  COURSE.  Henry  Holt  d  Go.,  New  York, 
1900,  pp.  478,  $1.60.  This  is  in  many  ways  the  most  sig- 
nificant volume  that  has  yet  been  written  in  English  on 
psychology.  The  general  reader  may  begin  his  reading  of 
the  book  at  page  134,  as  the  first  133  pages  involve  a  knowl- 
edge of  physiology. 

James,  William. 

TALKS  TO  TEACHERS  ON  PSYCHOLOGY.    Henry  Holt  &  Go.,  New 
York,  1901,  pp.  SOI,  $1.50.    Although  this  book  was  written 
primarily  for  teachers,  it  will  be  found  valuable  to  business 
men. 

Jastrow,  Joseph. 

THE  subconscious.  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Go.,  Boston,  1905, 
pp.  5Jf9,  $2.50.  The  best  book  on  the  phases  of  psychology 
indicated  by  the  title. 

Jastrow,  Joseph. 

FACT  AND  fable  IN  PSYCHOLOGY.  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Go., 
1900,  pp.  375,  $2.50. 

Kelly,  T.  L. 

EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE.  Teacliers  Gollege,  Golumhia  Uni- 
versity, New  York,  19U,  $2.00. 

Ladd,  G.  T.,  and  Woodworth,  E.  S. 

ELEMENTS  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  PSYCHOLOGY.  Gharlcs  Scrihner^s 
Sons,  New  York,  1911,  pp.  70J/,  $4.00. 


434       THE   PSYCHOLOGY   OF   ADVERTISING 

Link,  Henry  C. 

EMPLOYMENT  PSYCHOLOGY.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1919, 
pp.  JfJfO,  $2.50.  A  description  of  the  application  of  scientific 
methods  to  the  selection,  training  and  grading  of  employees, 
as  practiced  by  the  author  in  large  industrial  plants. 

McDouGALL,  William. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY.    Johfl  W.  Luce  &  Co., 

Boston,  1918,  pp.  J,31,  $2.50. 

MUENSTERBERG,    HUGO. 

PSYCHOLOGY  AND  LIFE.  Houghtofi  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1899, 
pp.  286,  $2.50. 

MUENSTERBERG,  HUGO. 

PSYCHOLOGY    AND    INDUSTRIAL    EFFICIENCY.      HoUghton    Mifflin 

Co.,  New  York,  1913,  pp.  321,  $1.50. 

MUENSTERBERG,  HUGO. 

PSYCHOLOGY,    GENERAL    AND    APPLIED.      Appleton    &    Co.,    NeW 

York,  19U,  pp.  Jt87,  $1.75. 

MUENSTERBERG,  HUGO. 

GRUNDSzuGE  DER  PSYCHOTECHNiK.    T.  A.  Barth,  Leipzig,  191Jf, 

pp.  767. 

MUENSTERBERG,  HUGO. 

BUSINESS  PSYCHOLOGY.  La  Salle  Extension  University,  Chi- 
cago, 1915,  pp.  296,  $2.50. 

Phillips,  D.  E. 

AN  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Ncw  York,  1913, 
$1.20. 

PiLLSBURY,  W.  B. 

ESSENTIALS  OF  PSYCHOLOGY.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1911, 
pp.  362,  $1.25. 

PiLLSBURY,  W.   B. 

FUNDAMENTALS  OF  PSYCHOLOGY.  MacmUlan  Co.,  Ncw  York, 
1916,  pj).  562,  $2.00. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  435 

PiNTNER,  E.,  AND  PaTERSOX,  D.   B. 

A    SCALE    OF    PERFORMANCE    TESTS.      D.    AppletOfl    &    Co,,    NeW 

York,  1917,  pp.  217,  $2.00. 

Ross,  E.  A. 

SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY.  Macmillau  Co.,  New  York,  1908,  pp. 
372,  $1.50. 

Scott,  Walter  Dill. 

history  and  manual  of  personnel  work  in  the  u.  s.  army. 
U.  S.  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.C.,  1919, 
2  vols.,  $1.00  for  the  set.  This  work  was  written  by  the 
various  members  of  the  Committee  on  Classification  of 
Personnel  in  the  Army  and  is  an  authoritative  account  of 
the  methods  employed  by  the  War  Department  in  handling 
personnel  in  the  world  war. 

Scott,  Walter  Dill. 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  PUBLIC  SPEAKING.  Hinds,  Haydcn  and 
Eldridge,  New  York,  1907,  pp.  222,  $1.25. 

Scott,  Walter  Dill. 

INCREASING  HUMAN  EFFICIENCY.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York, 
1911,  pp.  338,  $1.50. 

Scott,  Walter  Dill. 

INFLUENCING  MEN  IN  BUSINESS.  Ronald  Prcss,  Ncw  York, 
1916,  pp.  168,  $1.50. 

Scripture,  E.  W. 

THE  NEW  PSYCHOLOGY.  Charlcs  Scrihner's  Sons,  New  York, 
1898,  pp.  500,  $1.25. 

Scripture,  E.  W. 

THINKING,  FEELING  AND  DOING.  G.  P.  Putnam^s  Sons,  New 
York,  1907,  pp.  266,  $1.75. 

Seashore,  C.  E. 

PSYCHOLOGY    IN    EVERY-DAY    LIFE.      D.    Applcton    &    Co.,    NeW 

York,  19U,  pp.  225,  $1.75. 


436       THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF   ADVERTISING 

SiDis,  Boris. 

THE    PSYCHOLOGY    OF    SUGGESTION.      D.    Appletotl    &    Co.,    NcW 

York,  1898,  pp.  386,  $1.75. 

Simpson,  B.  E. 

CORRELATION  OF  MENTAL  ABILITIES.  ColumMa  Ufiiversity 
Contributions  to  Education,  1912,  pp.  122,  $1.25. 

Starch,  Daniel. 

EDUCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGY.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1920, 
pp.  Jf73,  $2.60. 

Stratton,  George  Malcom. 

experimental  psychology  and  its  bearing  upon  culture. 
Macmillan  Co.,  Netv  York,  1903,  pp.  331,  $2.00. 

Terman,  Lewis  M. 

the  measurement  of  intelligence  i  an  explanation  of  and 
a  complete  guide  for  the  use  of  the  standard  revision 
and  extension  of  the  binet-simon  intelligence  scale. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  New  York,  1916,  pp.  358,  $2.10. 

Terman,  Lewis  M. 

the  stanford  revision  and  extension  of  the  binet-simon 
SCALE  FOR  MEASURING  INTELLIGENCE.  Warwick  &  York,  Bal- 
timore, 1917,  pp.  179,  $2.10. 

Thorndike,  Edward  Lee. 

THE  HUMAN  NATURE  CLUB.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New 
York,  1902,  pp.  235,  $1.25.  The  readers  of  this  elementary 
work  would  doubtless  desire  some  of  the  author's  more 
advanced  works  after  the  completion  of  this  introductory 
one. 

Thorndike,  E.  L. 

MENTAL  AND  SOCIAL  MEASUREMENTS.  Tcttchers  College,  Co- 
lumbia University,  Netv  York,  1913,  pp.  271,  $1.50. 

Titchener,  E.  B. 

A  beginner's  PSYCHOLOGY.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1917, 
pp.  362,  $1.50, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  437 

WiTMER,  LiGHTMER. 

ANALYTICAL  PSYCHOLOGY.  Giun  d  Co.,  New  York,  1902,  pp. 
251,  $1.50. 

WooDwORTH,  Robert  Sessions. 

DYNAMIC  psychology.  ColumMa  University  Press,  New 
York,  1918,  pp.  210,  $1.50. 

WOOLLEY,   H.   T.,   AND   FiSCHER,   C.   R. 

MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL   MEASUREMENTS  OF  WORKING  CHILDREN. 

Psychological  Review  Publications  Co.,  Princeton,  N.J. 
{Monograph  Supplement,  v.  18),  191Jf,  pp.  21fl. 

WUNDT,  WiLHELM. 

OUTLINES  OF  PSYCHOLOGY,  (x.  E.  Stcchcrt  &  Co.,  Ncw  York, 
1902,  pp.  3JA  $2.00. 

WUNDT,  WiLHELM. 

'  HUMAN   AND    ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY.     Macmillan    Co.,   Ncw 
York,  189Jf,  pp.  ^54,  $2.60. 

Yerkes,  R.  M.,  Bridges,  J.  W.,  and  Hardwick,  R.  S. 

A  POINT   SCALE   FOR   MEASURING   MENTAL  ABILITY.      Warwick   & 

York,  Baltimore,  1915,  pp.  213,  $1.25. 

Yoakum,  Cl.\rence  S.,  and  Yerkes,  Robert  M. 

ARMY  MENTAL  TESTS.  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York,  1920, 
pp.  303,  $1.50.  A  complete  account  of  mental  testing  in  the 
army  during  the  world  war,  including  the  forms  used,  the 
methods,  and  the  practical  applications  of  the  results. 


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(F7763sl0)476B  University  of  CaliSmia 

Berkeley 


I  U.C.BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


€05253=1153 


536:«?J 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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